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Book, 'WVk 

By bequest of jf ^| Jr 

William Lukens Shoemaker 



itOBEBT BEALL, 
kseller and Stationer, 
i Pennsylvania Ave., j 



A 

TREATISE 



ENGLISH PUNCTUATION; 



DESIGNED FOR 



LETTER-WRITERS, AUTHORS, PRINTERS, AND 
CORRECTORS OF THE PRESS: 



THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 



®TOf) an gtyjiemri):, 



CONTAINING RULES ON THE USE OP CAPITALS, A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, 

HINTS ON THE PREPARATION OF COPY AND ON PROOF-READING, 

SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET, ETC. 



BY JOHN WILSON. 



TWENTY-SECOND EDITION. 



WOOLWORTH, AINSWORTH, & COMPANY, 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 






*H* 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

JOHN WILSON, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 

Gift. 
7 S '06 



Cambridge : Press of John Wilson and Son. 



PEEFACE TO THE TWENTIETH EDITION. 



In 1826, an edition of this work, designed solely for printers, 
was first published. In 1850, the second edition appeared, 
greatly enlarged, and designed for letter- writers, authors, 
printers, and correctors of the press. 

In 1855, the author, in his Preface to the third edition, 
says : " In presenting anew the following treatise, the author 
would say, that, agreeably to the admission contained in the 
closing paragraph of the Preface to the second edition, he 
has embraced the opportunity of making what is conceived 
to be further improvements, by changing occasionally the 
modes of expression, enlarging the remarks and exercises, 
rewriting and extending the section on compound and de- 
rivative words, drawing up a more copious list of abbrevia- 
tions, offering to young authors some considerations on the 
preparation of ' copy,' and appending a full and minute 
Index. He feels justified in affirming, that not only in its 
present form, but in its past, this book is the most complete 
of any on the subject that he has seen." 

And now, three years after the author's death, this edi- 
tion — the twentieth — is offered to the public, in the hope 
that it may still continue to merit the approval awarded to 
former editions. 

Cambridge, Mass. 
1871. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 



The work that follows is a new edition of one published by the 
writer in England, about six years ago, under the title of " A Trea- 
tise on Grammatical Punctuation ; " the difference consisting, not in 
their fundamental principles, but in the mode in which these are 
stated, in the divisions of the subjects treated of, in the augmentation 
of the exercises, and in the insertion of matter which is entirely 
new. 

i The proper manner of using the book will depend altogether on 
the capabilities of the learner. If unversed in Punctuation, or but 
slightly acquainted with the art, it is recommended, that, after a 
careful study of Sect. II. of the " Introduction," he confine his 
attention to the leading principles laid down in the definitions and 
rules, all of which are printed in a larger character, and may be 
readily seen ; and also to then illustrations, which are given under 
the head of " Examples " and of " Oral Exercises," — hi. that por- 
tion which applies merely to the rules. When he has gone through 
this course, he will have been furnished with as much information 
as will enable him to comprehend the exceptions or the additional 
principles contained in the " Eemarks," and to explain or write and 
punctuate the remaining or second series of exercises in accordance 
both with the rules and the remarks. 

These modes of studying the book, it is conceived, may be 
advantageously adopted in schools, with more or less variation, to 
suit the capacity of each individual in a class. The Italic lines, 
under the heads termed "Exercises," are mere general directions, 
which the teachei may modify according to his own taste and judg- 
ment. But, beyond these brief hints, the writer has not prescribed 
a* 



71 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

any questions for examination, because he thinks that such a pro- 
cedure, common as it is in elementary books, either offers a premium 
to sloth and ignorance on the part of an instructor, or implies an 
insult to his understanding and his talents, as if he were less capable 
than an author of knowing what to ask of those under his charge. 

Though written in a manner which specially adapts it to instruc- 
tion in schools, the work is also designed for printers and private 
students, all of whom must have some previous acquaintance with 
English literature ; and also for young authors, who can have little 
difficulty in mastering an art so intimately connected with their 
tastes or profession. For this class of students, the exercises termed 
"Oral" will be found peculiarly serviceable; tending, as they do 
by a variety of examples, to impress on the mind the practical 
applications of the rules and remarks to which they refer. 

At the request of friends, the writer has introduced into the 
Appendix a short article on Proof-reading, the insertion of which 
will, he trusts, be found of some use to authors and printers, if not 
to general readers. 

With respect to the mode in which the work has been executed, 
its author asks no indulgence but that of candor and good feeling. 
He has ventured, as in the former edition, to call the book a " Trea- 
tise," because he professes to have gone somewhat thoroughly into 
the subject with which it deals; but he does not flatter himself, that 
he has cleared away every obstacle which has beset one small but 
requisite pathway to literary excellence. On the contrary, he feels 
that in a production of this nature, which requires so much expe- 
rience and accuracy, and for the preparation of which so little aid, 
comparatively speaking, can be derived from other writers, all is not 
yet effected that can be done to simplify, and to put on a firm basis, 
that despised but useful art, — the art of Punctuation. 

Boston, May, 1850. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAP. I. — INTRODUCTION. 

Paga 

Sect. I. — The Importance and Uses op Cokkect Punc- 
tuation 1 

Sect. II. — Plan of the Work, and Definitions of the 

Terms used 19 



CHAP. H. - THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS. 

Introductory Observations 26 

SECT. I. THE COMMA. 

Remarks on the Use of the Comma 27 

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, connected by the 

Conjunctions and, or, nor 28 

Two Words, of the same Part of Speeoh, not connected by a 

Conjunction . 33 

Series of Words of the same Part of Speech 37 

Words or Phrases in Apposition 41 

Words or Phrases in Contrast 45 

The Subject and the Predicate 50 

Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses , 57 

Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses 64 



VU1 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Vocative Words, Phrases, and Clauses 68 

Adjectival, Participial, and Absolute Phrases 69 

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases . . . 72 

Phrases at the End of Sentences or Clauses ....... 78 

Inverted or Transposed Expressions » 83 

One Clause depending on Another 89 

Correlative Words, Phrases, and Clauses ........ 93 

Phrases and Clauses in the same Construction ...... 98 

Clauses having a Verb understood 104 

Clauses consisting of Short Quotations or Remarks .... 108 

Numeral Figures and Words 112 

SECT. II. THE SEMICOLON. 

A Sentence consisting of Two Conjoined Clauses 113 

Expressions divided into Simpler Parts 116 

A Series of Expressions having a Common Dependence . . . 120 

Short Sentences slightly Connected 125 

Lists of Word3, Phrases, and Numbers . 128 

SECT. III. — THE COLON. 

Kemarks on the Use and Abuse of the Colon ....... 129 

Two Clauses not joined by a Conjunction 130 

Conjoined Members of Sentences 134 

Quotations, Remarks, &c, formally Introduced .<,..., 138 

The Chanting Service in the Liturgy 141 

Terms in the Rule of Three 141 

Concluding Remarks 141 

SECT. IV. THE PERIOD. 

Complete and Independent Sentences 142 

Headings, Subheads, Phrases in Titlepages, &c 147 



CONTENTS. IX 

Tage. 

Names, Titles, and other Words, abbreviated 148 

Marks or Figures used instead of Words 150 

Letters used for Figures or Words 160 



CHAP. III. — THE GRAMMATICAL AND 
RHETORICAL POINTS. 

Introductory Observations ............ 168 

SECT. I. NOTES OF INTERROGATION AND 

EXCLAMATION. 

Remarks on the Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation . . 154 

Expressions in the Form of Questions 155 

Expressions indicating Passion or Emotion 169 

SECT. II. MARKS OP PARENTHESIS. 

Observations on Parentheses, and Marks of Parenthesis ... 167 

Words thrown obliquely into the Body of a Sentence .... 168 

SECT. III. THE DASH. 

Remarks on the Use and Abuse of the Dash 174 

Broken and Epigrammatic Sentences 175 

A Concluding Clause on which other Expressions depend . . 178 

The Echo, or Words repeated Rhetorically 182 

A Parenthesis coalescing with the Main Passage 186 

Ellipsis of the Adverb " Namely," &c 291 

Subheads, &c, to Paragraphs 194 

Omission of Letters, Figures, or Words 195 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAP. IV. — LETTER, SYLLABIC, AND 
QUOTATION POINTS. 

Page. 
Introductory Observations 197 

SECT. I. THE APOSTROPHE. 

Elision of Letters, or Shortening of Words 198 

The Genitive or Possessive Case 204 

SECT. II. THE HYPHEN. 

Remarks on the Uses of the Hyphen 208 

Compound Words 209 

Prefixes in Derivative Words 219 

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Pro- 
nunciation 224 

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Form, 

Derivation, or Meaning 225 

SECT. III. MARKS OP QUOTATION. 

Words borrowed from a Speaker or an Author 228 

One Quotation within Another 230 

Extracts composed of Successive Paragraphs 232 



CHAP. Y. - MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

Brackets, or Crotchets 235 

A Comma Inverted ; Two Commas 236 

The Index, or Hand ; Three Stars ; the Caret ; the Brace . . 237 

Marks of Ellipsis ; Leaders 238 

Accents; Marks of Quantity; the Cedilla; the Tilde . ... 239 

Marks of Reference 240 



CONTENTS. XI 



CHAP. VI. — GENERAL EXERCISES. 

Page. 

Introductory Observations 241 

Pride and Humility, by Thomas Brown 242 

Abou Ben Adhem, by Leigh Hunt 244 

Panegyric on England, by Edward Everett 245 

The Pen and the Press, by John Critchley Prince 247 

A Taste for Beading, by George S. Hillard 248 

Relative Perfection, by John James Tayler 250 

Labor not Lost, by E. C. Trench 251 

Ancient and Modern Writers, by Charles Sumner 252 

The True Source of Reform, by E. H. Chapin 253 

Great Men generally Good, by John Logan 264 



APPENDIX. 



of Capital Letters 257 

The First Word of a Book, Tract, &c 258 

The First Word after a Full Point 258 

Appellations of God and Christ 259 

Titles of Honor and Respect 261 

Names of Persons, Places, &c 262 

Nouns and Adjectives derived from Proper Names .... 263 

Words of Primary Importance 264 

The Pronoun I, and the Interjection 265 

Commencement of Lines in Verse 266 

Prosopopoeia, or Personification 266 

Quotations, Examples, &c 267 

Capitals used instead of Figures 268 

Titlepages, Inscriptions, &c 268 



Xll CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Italic Characters 269 

Terms relating to Books 270 

Captions, Subheads, Sideheads, and Running Titles . . . 270 

Signatures 271 

Names of Various Sizes of Books 271 

Abbreviations and Representative Letters .... 272 

Various Modes of Forming Abbreviations . ...<-. 272 

Table of Abbreviations ,277 

Medical and Mathematical Signs 301 

Astronomical Characters 302 

The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac 302 

The Planetary Signs 802 

The Lunar Signs 302 

Aspects of the Planets 302 

Hints on preparing Copt, and on reading Proofs . . 303 

Explanation of Proof-marks 316 

Specimen of Proof-sheet ...... ..... 320 

Index 828 



ENGLISH PUNCTUATION. 



CHAPTER 1. 

INTRODUCTION. 



Sect. I. — The Importance and Uses of Correct 
Punctuation. 

No one will hesitate to admit, that next in value to the 
capacity of discerning or discovering truth, and of feel- 
ing the blessed relations which we sustain to the Being 
who made us, and to our fellow-creatures, particularly 
those with whom we are more immediately connected, 
is the power by which intelligence and emotion are 
communicated from one mind to another. By it the 
great and the gifted of past times have bequeathed to us 
many a rich legacy of thought and deed ; and by it 
those of the present either re-create the old materials, 
or fashion new ones, for the delight and improvement 
of their own generation ; and transmit to the future — 
to beings yet unborn — their treasures of wisdom, of 
genius, and of love. This power, it is needless to say, 
is language, oral and written, especially the latter. 

But as oral speech has its tones and inflections, its 
pauses and its emphases, and other variations of voice, 
l 



Z INTRODUCTION. 

to give greater expression to the thoughts which spoken 
words represent, and to produce on the mind of the 
hearer a more rapid and intense impression than lifeless 
enunciation could effect ; so written or printed language 
is usually accompanied by marks or points, to enable the 
reader to comprehend at a glance the precise and deter- 
minate sense of the author, — a sense which, without 
these marks, would in many instances be gathered only 
by an elaborate and painful process, and very often be 
misunderstood. It therefore obviously follows, that the 
art which serves to elucidate the meaning of a writer, 
to bring out his ideas with more facility, and to render 
his expressions a genuine transcript of the feelings 
and sentiments which he would convey to the hearts 
and the minds of others, is entitled to no small degree 
of attention. 

Now, it is indisputable that Punctuation does conduce 
to make written language more effective, by exhibiting 
with greater precision and definiteness the ideas, feel- 
ings, and emotions of an author, than could be accom- 
plished by a mass of words, however well chosen, if 
brought together without those peculiar marks which 
show the multifarious varieties of union or of separa- 
tion existing in thought and expression. For what is 
Punctuation, and what its aim? It is the art of 
dividing a literary composition into sentences, and parts 
of sentences, by means of points, for the purpose of 
exhibiting the various combinations, connections, and 
dependencies of words. And what is this process but 
a means of facilitating that analysis and combination 
which must be made, consciously or unconsciously, 
before we can penetrate to the very core of an author's 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 3 

thoughts, and appropriate them as food for the life and 
growth of our own minds ? 

We would not overrate the importance of Punctua- 
tion, or deny that many subjects are worthy of a higher 
regard, and have a more immediate and vital influence 
on the well-being of society. But we would emphati- 
cally say, that this subject ought to be understood by 
all who are led, by the bent of their tastes, the force of 
their genius, or their condition in life, to enter upon any 
of the walks of literature, whether they would tread an 
humble and a beaten track, or wander into paths adorned 
by flowers and fruit. It is related to philology and 
metaphysics, and indeed, more or less, to every science 
or art communicated by the instrumentality of written 
language. It is intimately connected with the principles 
of grammar ; subservient to the purposes of syntax ; 
essential to the clearing-up of ambiguities, which so 
often obscure composition ; and useful to the more 
ready understanding even of those sentences whose 
construction is not liable to the charge of obscurity. By 
the omission or the improper insertion of points, not only 
would the beauties and elegances of literature, but even 
its advantages, be faintly discerned and enjoyed, except 
by the most attentive readers, or by men of superior 
taste and information : the sense of even the more simple 
and familiar class of productions — such as the narra- 
tive, the essay, or the epistle — would be liable to be 
misapprehended, or, at least, to be imperfectly under- 
stood. Indeed, the perusal of a single page of any 
work will bear testimony to the comparative value of a 
just punctuation. Nay, scarcely can a sentence be 
perused with satisfaction or interest, unless pointed with 



INTRODUCTION. 



some degree of accuracy. The well-known speech of 
Norval, for instance, in the tragedy of " Douglas," may, 
by an erroneous use of the pauses, be delivered in such 
a manner as to pervert or destroy the meaning ; as, — 

" My name is Norval on the Grampian hills. 
My father feeds his flock a frugal swain ; 
Whose constant cares were to increase his store. 



We fought and conquered ere a sword was drawn. 
An arrow from my bow, had pierced their chief 
Who wore that day the arms which now I wear." 

But the insertion of the right stops will restore the sense 
of these passages, and render them conformable to the 
conceptions of the dramatist : — 

" My name is Norval. On the Grampian hills 
My father feeds his flock; a frugal swain, 
Whose constant cares were to increase his store. 



We fought and conquered. Ere a sword was drawn, 
An arrow from my bow had pierced their chief, 
Who wore, that day, the arms which now I wear." * 

Notwithstanding, however, its utility, Punctuation 
has not received that attention which its importance 
demands. Considered merely as the plaything of the 
pedant, or as the peculiar function of the printer, it is 
often neglected or perverted by those who have occasion 
to present to the eye either their own thoughts or the 
thoughts of others. The man of science, the mental 
philosopher, and the philologist seem to regard it as too 

* In the note at the end of this section, page 18, will be found a few other 
instauces of erroneous pointing, which, though in their nature sufficiently 
ludicrous, show in a forcible manner the necessity of paying a due regard to 
punctuation. Many happy illustrations of the importance of correct marks 
may also be seen in Day's valuable little work, entitled " Punctuation reduced 
to a System," pp. 33—15. 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 

trifling, amid their grander researches into the laws of 
the universe, the internal operations of the human mind, 
and its external workings by means of language. The 
grammarian passes it by altogether unheeded, or lays 
down a few general and abstract principles ; leaving the 
pupil to surmount the difficulties of the art as well as 
he may. The lawyer engrosses in a character which 
is perfectly legible ; but, by its deficiency in sentential 
marks, it often proves, like the laws of which he is the 
expounder, " gloriously uncertain " as to the meaning 
intended to be expressed. The painter, the engraver, 
and the lithographer appear to set all rules at defiance, 
by either omitting the points or misplacing them, when 
required in certain departments of their work. The let- 
ter-writer, with his incessant and indiscriminate dashes, 
puts his friend, his beloved one, his agent, or his em- 
ployer, to a little more trouble, in conning over his 
epistle, than is absolutely necessary. Even the author 
— who, of all writers, ought to be the most accurate — 
not unfrequently puts his manuscript into the printer's 
hands, either destitute of grammatical points, or so 
badly punctuated as to create a needless loss of time to 
the compositor. 

But though an acquaintance with the principles of the 
art in question has been deemed the peculiar province 
of the printer, who might therefore be expected to have 
the requisite qualifications for the performance of his 
task ; yet it must be admitted, that from the press are 
issued many books, grossly erroneous in sentential 
marks ; and perhaps not a few, which, though distin- 
guished for elegance of style, accuracy of orthography, 
or beauty of printing, are unworthy of being held up 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

as models of good taste and judgment in the use of 
points. It is a fact well known to those connected with 
the press, that compositors in general have a very 
deficient knowledge of Punctuation, considered as a 
branch of science ; and that they acquire what they do 
know of it as an art, chiefly by mechanical habit, or by 
the correction of innumerable blunders, marked on the 
proof-sheets. 

To make these observations, however, without grant- 
ing many exceptions, would savor more of the petulance 
of presumption than of the candor of true criticism. 
There are numerous masterpieces of composition, in 
which the writer, the compositor, and the corrector of 
the press, have, either separately or together, inserted 
points with taste and propriety. 

But enough has been said to demonstrate the necessity 
for an increased attention to the subject, and to prove a 
very obvious, though not an acknowledged, truth, that 
the principles of Punctuation must be duly learned, 
before they can be understood, or brought into system- 
atic and perfect use. The question, then, will naturally 
arise, How is the desired improvement to be effected ? 
how are the theory and practice of the art to be attained ? 
We answer, By the most simple means ; by the very 
means which are so well adapted to other subjects of 
learning. Let Punctuation form a branch of academi- 
cal instruction ; let it be studied, after a competent 
knowledge of English etymology and syntax has been 
acquired ; let the rules be thoroughly comprehended by 
the pupil, — be explained to him, if necessary, in the 
teacher's language, and re-explained by himself in his 
own words. Let him also write copious exercises, in 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 7 

order to bring into further plaj his judgment and taste ; 
and let him present to his teacher these trials of his 
skill, to be examined and approved or corrected. By 
this means will he soon be capable of so punctuating 
his own compositions as to be read by others with ease, 
pleasure, and advantage. 

This is an age of authors, as well as of readers. 
Young aspirants after fame, some of them of considera- 
ble merit, meet us at every step, and in every department 
of literature. But surely, if they are capable of enlight- 
ening the world by their wisdom, or dazzling it by their 
genius, they can have no difficulty in writing so as to be 
understood. If they have thoughts worthy of being 
communicated through the agency of the pen and the 
press, they surely cannot with justice regard it as any 
degradation of their powers to submit to the task of 
indicating, as accurately as possible, what they do really 
intend to say. If there is beauty in their style ; if there 
is pathos in their sentiments ; if there is moral and intel- 
lectual vigor in the thoughts that burn for utterance ; if 
their discourse is calculated to refine the taste, to improve 
the heart, and ennoble the mind, of the reader, — surely 
they should be careful that that beauty be not marred, 
that that pathos be not unfelt, that that vigor be not 
weakened, that that discourse be not shorn of half its 
power over the character and happiness of others, from 
the petty motive of saving themselves the trouble of 
learning what, of all men, from the very nature of their 
pursuits, they are the best able and most bound to learn. 
Besides, it is worthy of remark, that, by habituating 
themselves to the practice of pointing, their attention 
will naturally be directed to clearness of thought, and 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

accuracy of expression. They will be more apt to 
regard words as but of little value, except as repre- 
sentatives of ideas, and as an instrument by which these 
may gain access to the human soul. If involved in the 
difficulty of punctuating a badly formed sentence, such 
as the following, " God heapeth favors on his servants 
ever liberal and faithful," — supposing this to imply that 
the Divine Being is ever liberal and faithful, — they 
will almost necessarily be led to reconstruct it, that 
they may rid themselves of their perplexity, and leave 
no doubt as to the sense meant to be conveyed; for, 
beyond all question, facility in punctuation is generally 
in proportion to the perspicuity and the good arrange- 
ment of words. Let authors, therefore, turn a little of 
their attention to the elements of this art, trifling and 
undignified as it may seem to be. Let them not trans- 
fer to their printer that department of duty which as 
authors it is their own province to fill. With some few 
boasted exceptions, no doubt much overrated, neither 
compositors nor correctors of the press are immaculate ; 
for they do not understand all the subjects treated of in 
books, and cannot with accuracy punctuate what they 
do not comprehend. 

It was in bygone times a preliminary requisite, that 
printers should be acquainted with what are termed the 
learned languages. But though, in this age of a more 
general and superficial literature, a profound knowledge 
of Hebrew points, Greek accents, and Latin quantities, 
is no longer required, it is necessary that compositors 
be acquainted with the principles of their native tongue, 
and with the functions of the peculiar marks used for 
setting off sentences, clauses, and phrases. Were every 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. \J 

author to write his work in a fair, legible character, 
and so punctuate his language as to convey the sense 
clearly and correctly, then might compositors act as 
mere machines, and " follow " their " copy." But, until 
writers for the press condescend to use the stops system- 
atically and accurately, the humble workmen who put 
together the world-enlightening types must be more than 
unconscious machines : they must, to some degree, enter 
into the conceptions of those on whose works they are 
employed, and develop the sense of their manuscripts, 
with the greatest possible discrimination, by the help 
and service of the poor, despised, but useful handmaids, 
— the commas, the semicolons, and other little points. 
We know well the feeling which very naturally and pro- 
perly exists in the minds of compositors, that the " copy " 
put into their hands should be prepared with an accuracy 
which would preclude the necessity, on their part, of 
losing time by pondering over the manuscript in order 
to render it intelligible to the reading public. But this 
we know also, that, in the actual state of things, the time 
thus apparently lost is, when employed aright, a com- 
parative gain, by reason of the far greater consumption 
of unprofitable labor in the insertion and extraction of 
points, after the proof-sheet has been returned by the 
corrector of the press. If the manuscript be defective 
or erroneous in its sentential marks, the compositor must 
either take a little trouble in pointing it himself, or have 
it done for him afterwards by the proof-reader, to the 
serious diminution of his professional character, his good 
temper, and his weekly wages. But, further, we would 
ask, Is not the operative who comprehends the principles 
of his calling, — who really knows what he is about, — 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

a happier and a nobler being than he who works at mere 
random, and stumbles at every petty obstruction in his 
way ? Does not his daily toil become a pleasure, when 
it brings into play the exercise of a fine taste and a 
cultivated understanding ? Do not his very difficulties 
become a source of satisfaction, when he himself can 
solve them, without being forced for ever to ask the aid 
of his fellow-workmen, or to submit to the painful pro- 
cess of undoing what he has already done, — of altering 
and improving what he has ignorantly and blunderingly 
executed ? Do not, indeed, these difficulties become 
less and less, the more frequently he is successful m 
removing them? Does he not, by his endeavors to 
perform his work in a skilful manner, acquire habits of 
discrimination, that will enable him, in cases at which 
others would fret and foam or idly stand, to see, as it 
were intuitively, the very thing required, and the mode 
in which it should be done ? These questions may be 
asked in relation to manual labor of any kind. They 
may be asked, too, in respect to all the branches of 
work in which a compositor may be engaged. But 
they are put here chiefly in reference to his knowledge 
and appliance of the art of Punctuation ; and we feel 
assured, that, if desirous of being able to insert points 
with skill and propriety, he will also aim to perform 
well all the duties pertaining to his sphere of toil. If, 
therefore, the compositor would lose as little as possible 
of that time which is so valuable to him ; if he would 
have at his command greater pecuniary resources than 
he can have by ignorance of his art, or by habits of 
carelessness ; if, by the exercise of his intellectual 
powers, he would deprive physical toil of no small share 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 11 

of its pain or lassitude, — let him, if now ignorant of 
the subject, never rest contented till he is able both to 
understand the principles on which Punctuation is based, 
and to bring them into full practice. 

The remarks just made have the strongest claim on 
the attention of youths learning the art of type-setting ; 
many of whom, stimulated by a love of change or by 
false views of independence, soon break loose from 
those steady and regular habits which are necessary 
for mastering the difficulties of any occupation ; moving 
about from one employer to another, without having a 
disposition or sufficient time to attain a knowledge even 
of the first principles of the craft by which they are to 
earn a living. But if desirous of perfecting themselves 
in the various branches of typography, one of which we 
have shown to be the art of Punctuation, it is of the 
greatest moment that they resolve to remain with a 
person whom they can regard as a friend as well as 
an employer ; and receive from him, or at their leisure 
hours from the study of books designed for the purpose, 
such instruction as will conduce to their improvement, 
and render them, when of age, competent to discharge, 
with honor to themselves and with satisfaction to others, 
the duties pertaining to their profession. 

If a knowledge of Punctuation is admitted to be 
requisite to the setter of types, there will be the utmost 
reason for regarding it as indispensable to a reader of 
proof-sheets. Besides the multiform duties devolving 
on or expected from him, — of correcting and improving 
the work of compositors, which is seldom, if ever, a 
faithful representation of the " copy ; " of rectifying the 
orthography of inexperienced writers, and drawing 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

the attention of others to errors in grammar and con- 
struction, into which the most accurate will sometimes 
fall, — the professional corrector is generally required, 
in the existing state of authorship, to devote a great 
part of his attention to the proper insertion of points, 
and thus to present to the public eye in a readable con- 
dition what would otherwise be an ill-digested mass of 
letters and words. When it is considered that he has 
not unfrequently to perform this task amid doubts and 
difficulties arising from manuscript almost illegible, it 
will be seen how necessary it is for correctors of the 
press to possess that kind of knowledge which is so 
easily within their reach, and which at present forms an 
essential and a peculiar feature of their calling, — an 
accurate knowledge of the theory and practice of Punc- 
tuation. It would not be right to expect from them, 
even if they were better remunerated, perfect accuracy 
in their work ; but, so long as they hold so responsible 
a situation, their ignorance of this branch of their pro- 
fession should be regarded as inexcusable. 

It may be, and has been, objected to the study of this 
art, that it is not subject to any fixed or determinate 
principles ; that scarcely two writers follow the same 
mode of punctuating sentences. Where one author or 
printer uses a comma, another would insert a semi- 
colon ; and, where one thinks a semicolon ought to be 
employed, another prefers a colon, if not a comma. One 
teacher embarrasses the learner with an additional pause 
(the semicomma), by giving it " a local habitation and a 
name ; " while a different one discards the colon alto- 
gether as a useless point Some grammarians would 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 13 

unfeelingly lop off the dash, as an excrescence on a 
printed leaf; but others, again, are so partial to its 
form and use as to call in its aid on every possible 
occasion. 

The objection has, on purpose, been strongly stated. 
But might not similar objections be adduced against the 
orthography, the etymology, and the syntax of the Eng- 
lish language ; against, indeed, the general principles 
of English Grammar ? Might it not be demonstrated, 
that grammarians and lexicographers differ in spelling, 
in pronunciation, in the classification of the parts of 
speech, in modes of derivation and of construction, and 
in the position of relatives and adverbs ? Might not a 
plausible treatise be written against grammatical prin- 
ciples, — as plausible, but just as illogical and uncon- 
vincing, as are the common and startling objections 
against a system of Punctuation ? Might it not be 
shown, that Johnson and Lowth, Blair, Murray, and 
Crombie, have attacked the dicta of others, and have 
had their own attacked in turn ? Might it not be proved, 
that kings and queens, statesmen and historians, poets 
and essayists, nay, even professed grammarians, have 
written false English, and violated the most generally 
acknowledged canons of syntax ? But surely it would 
not be a fair conclusion to draw, from this diversity of 
opinion and from the employment of inelegant or incon- 
gruous English, that there are no determinate principles 
in the language ; that there is no authority to which an 
appeal can be made ; that authors may send forth their 
compositions into the world, without any regard what- 
ever to law or usage. Neither is it, we contend, a 
legitimate conclusion, that, because some writers dis- 



11 INTRODUCTION. 

agree in their system of pauses, and others point their 
works at random, therefore Punctuation is too trifling to 
demand serious attention, — too unsettled to be treated 
as a branch of science, or practised with any degree of 
uniformity as an art. 

The writer, then, of the present work can have no 
hesitation in asserting, that the art of Punctuation is not 
more varied or changeable in its character than that of 
composition ; and that its essential principles are as fixed 
and determinate as those canons in syntax, which, though 
sometimes violated by our best authors, are universally 
acknowledged to be indisputable. Diversities in the 
application of these principles will no more prove that 
modes of punctuating sentences are altogether arbitrary, 
than diversities in styles of composition will demonstrate 
that the labors of grammarians to ascertain the laws of 
language must go for nought, and that every writer 
may take whatever liberties he chooses, in opposition to 
reputable usage. As various modes of expressing a 
thought may be justifiably used, when they do not affect 
the principles of grammar ; though, as respects beauty, 
elegance, or force, one mode may be preferable to 
another: so also different methods of pointing a sen- 
tence may be allowable, when they do not violate the 
fundamental laws of Punctuation ; though they may be 
objectionable or otherwise, just as they are less or more 
calculated to please the eye, and bring out the sense of 
the passage. 

Perhaps one reason why Punctuation has been gene- 
rally undervalued or neglected is, that grammarians have 
devoted so little of their attention to the subject. The 
books, too, professedly written to elucidate its principles. 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 15 

are, so far as have been observed by the writer of the 
present work, deficient either in an explanation of 
exceptions and difficulties ; in examples and exercises ; 
or in rules and remarks, illustrative of the diversified 
functions of the notes of interrogation and exclamation, 
the marks of parenthesis, the dash, the apostrophe, the 
hyphen, and the quotation-marks. For though these 
may be regarded as minor points, when compared to 
others of a more grammatical nature, yet they occur so 
frequently that no work on Punctuation which passes 
them over with only a few brief and hasty remarks can 
be considered practically and generally useful. 

Another cause of the neglect and misapprehension to 
which correct Punctuation is subject, arises probably 
from the false light in which it is regarded. Many per- 
sons seem to consider points as being the representatives 
only of rhetorical pauses ; as showing merely those 
places, in the utterance of a composition, at which time 
for breathing is required ; as indicating the definite pro- 
portions of the stops made in reading aloud. Hence not 
a few writers and authors point their manuscript exactly 
as they would recite it, in accordance with their power 
of enunciation, with the quickness or slowness of their 
perceptions, or with their particular views as to the 
influence of pauses on the minds of their hearers. Elo- 
cutionists themselves disagree in respect to the precise 
cessations of the voice which should be made in delivery. 
Granting, however, that there were no differences of 
opinion on this subject, and that all good speakers would 
make the same pauses in the reading of any given dis- 
course, it might even then be easily shown, that the points 
in common use would not be sufficient for rhetorical 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

purposes ; and that, if thus employed, they would tend, 
by the necessity of perpetually repeating them, and the 
consequent minute separations of words and phrases, 
rather to perplex the judgment of the reader, than to 
facilitate his comprehension of the writer's meaning. 
Let us suppose, for instance, that the following passage 
were so punctuated as to correspond in some measure 
with the peculiar notation adopted by Mr. Vandenhoff, 
in his excellent work on the " Art of Elocution," pp. 73, 
74, and with the real pauses demanded by an accurate 
and effective delivery, it would stand thus : — 

" Men of superior genius; while they see the rest of mankind, painfully 
struggling, to comprehend obvious truths; glance, themselves, through the 
most remote consequences; like lightning, through a path, that cannot be 
traced; they see the beauties of nature, with light and warmth, and paint 
them forcibly, without effort; as the morning sun, does the scenes he rises 
upon ; and, in several instances, communicate to objects, a morning fresh- 
ness, and unaccountable lustre, that is not seen in the creations of nature. 
The poet, the statuary, the painter, have produced images, that left nature far 
behind." 

But let the same sentence be punctuated by the rules 
of grammar, and not by those of rhetoric, and with the 
sole view of indicating the sense of the passage, it would 
appear as follows : — 

'' Men of superior genius, while they see the rest of mankind painfully 
struggling to comprehend obvious truths, glance themselves through the most 
remote consequences, like lightning through a path that cannot be traced. 
They see the beauties of nature with light and warmth, and paint them for- 
cibly without effort, as the morning sun does the scenes he rises upon ; and. 
in several instances, communicate to objects a morning freshness and unac- 
couutable lustre that is not seen in the creations of nature. The poet, the 
statuary, the painter, have produced images that left nature far behind." 

By comparing the two modes of punctuation adopted in 
the passage under notice, — namely, the rhetorical or 



THE IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION. 17 

close, and the grammatical or free, — it will be obvious,, 
that, while the latter tends to elucidate the aim of the 
writer, and to some extent assist the delivery, the for- 
mer throws nothing but obscurity on his meaning ; and, 
though showing the various pauses of the voice with 
greater accuracy, imparts no information whatever on 
matters which in delivery are as important, — the inflec- 
tions, the intonations, the emphases, the calm, equable 
flow, or the wild torrent, of a good reader or an eloquent 
speaker. 

That grammatical and rhetorical punctuation are not 
one and the same, is acknowledged by the best elocu- 
tionists. Thus the writer just quoted says,* that " the 
grammatical pauses, which are addressed to the eye of 
the reader, are insufficient for the speaker, who addresses 
himself to the understanding ' through the porches of the 
ear.' . . . We have, therefore, rhetorical pauses, which are 
independent of, though consistent with and assistant to, 
the grammatical pauses." 

It must, however, be admitted that some of the 
points — namely, the mark of admiration and of excla- 
mation, the parenthesis, and the dash — partake more 
of a rhetorical character than the common and principal 
points ; and in this light we will consider them in the 
following pages. But, on the whole, it will be found 
that the art of Punctuation is founded rather on gram- 
mar than on rhetoric ; that its chief aim is to unfold 
the meaning of sentences, with the least trouble to the 
reader ; and that it aids the delivery, only in so far as 
it tends to bring out the sense of the writer to the best 
advantage. 

* " Art of Elocution," p 63. 
o 



18 INTRODUCTION. 



NOTES 
ILLUSTRATING THE VALUE OF CORRECT PUNCTUATION. 



1. The following request is said to have been made at church: " A 
sailor going to sea, his wife desires the prayers of the congregation 
for his safety." But, by an unhappy transposition of the comma, 
the note was thus read : " A sailor, going to see his wife, desires the 
prayers of the congregation for his safety." 

2. A blacksmith, passing by a hair-dresser's shop, observed in the 
window an unpointed placard, which he read as follows : — 

" What do you think? — 
I'll shave you for nothing, 
And give you some drink." 

The son of Vulcan, with a huge black beard on his chin and a little 
spark in his throat, considered the opportunity too good to be lost. 
He accordingly entered; and, after the operation had been duly per- 
formed, asked, with the utmost sang froid, for the liquor. But the 
shaver of beards demanded payment; when the smith, in a stentorian 
voice, referred him to his own placard, which the barber very good- 
humoredly produced, and read thus : — 

"What! do you think 
I'll shave you for nothing, 
And give you some drink ? ' ' 

3. Another example of the ludicrous will tend still better to show 
the value of just punctuation : — 

" Every lady in this land 
Hath twenty nails upon each hand ; 
Five and twenty on hands and feet. 
And this is true, without deceit." 

If the present points be removed, and others inserted as follow the 
true meaning of the passage will at once appear: — 

" Every lady in this land 
Hath twenty nails : upon each hand 
Five ; and twenty on hands and feet. 
And this is true, without deceit." 



PLAN OF THE WORK. 19 



Sect. II. — Plan of the Work, and Definitions 
of the Terms used. 

In the preceding section, Punctuation was defined to 
be the art of dividing a written or printed discourse 
into sentences, and parts of sentences, by means of 
certain marks called points, for the purpose of exhibiting 
the various combinations, connections, and dependencies 
of words. Its uses also were found to consist primarily 
in developing, with as much clearness as possible, the 
sense and the grammatical constructions of a composi- 
tion ; and secondarily in showing, to some extent, the 
various pauses which are requisite for an accurate 
reading or delivery. 

We now proceed to enter on the practical mode of 
attaining the information required ; and, for the sake 
of order and of clearness of conception, it is proposed 
to regard the subject as separable into branches. We 
will treat, in the first place, of the marks pertaining to 
sentences, which may be divided into two kinds, — 
the common or principal points, which are chiefly of a 
grammatical nature ; and the less common but equally 
necessary points, which, occurring as they often do in 
animated composition, and being used for the twofold 
purpose of bringing out the sense and aiding the deli- 
very, are entitled to be spoken of as both grammatical 
and rhetorical. We will, lastly, speak of other marks, 
which either bear a more intimate relation to letters 
and syllables than to words and sentences, or are of 
a varied and mixed character; and hence these may 



20 INTRODUCTION. 

be termed letter, syllabic, quotation, and miscellaneous 
points. 

Before, however, commencing the study of the laws 
which regulate the use of these marks, the learner 
should know at least as much of grammar as will enable 
him to distinguish, with tolerable accuracy, the different 
parts of speech into which language is resolvable. Be- 
sides this, it is essential that he be in some measure 
acquainted with the various kinds of sentences, their 
usual constructions, and the mode in which they may be 
analyzed into their component parts. Taking, there- 
fore, for granted that he is not entirely ignorant of the 
principles of the English language, we will intrude into 
the province of the grammarian, only so far as may be 
necessary for the student to form correct notions of the 
meaning of a few terms, relating to sentences, which 
will frequently occur in the rules and remarks, and 
without a due knowledge of which he would be unable 
fully to comprehend the laws of Punctuation. The 
terms alluded to, then, are defined and illustrated as 
follow : — 

DEFINITIONS. 

I. A Sentence is an assemblage of words, so arranged as to form 
a proposition, or two or more related propositions ; making, directly 
or indirectly, complete sense. 

II. A Simple Sentence expresses only a simple proposition. It 
consists of one nominative, subject, or thing spoken of, and of a sin- 
gle predicate, or affirmation concerning the subject ; as, — 

1. Calumny | destroys reputation. 2. The Creator | is good. 
3. Kings | reign. 

In these propositions, the words that precede the perpendicular 
lines are the subjects or nominatives, and those that follow are the 
predicates. 



DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 21 

A logician would define a proposition by stating it to be a sentence 
consisting of a subject ; of the copula, or sign of predication ; and 
of the predicate. But the explanation given will be found sufficiently 
correct for grammatical purposes. 

HI. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences in combination, and therefore contains more than one nomi- 
native and finite verb, either expressed or understood ; as, — 

1. Virtue refines the affections ; but vice debases them. 

2. To err is human; to forgive, divine. 

3. Age, though it lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our desire 

of living. 

That these sentences are compound will be seen at once by resolving 
each into two simple sentences : " Virtue refines the affections. Vice, 
on the other hand, debases the affections." — " To err is human. To 
forgive is divine." — "Age lessens the enjoyment of life. It, how- 
ever, increases our desire of living." 

IV. Members. — When a sentence consists of several clauses, 
admitting of a union of some and a separation of others, those which 
are combined may together be called members; as, — 

The ox knoweth his owner, | and the ass his master's crib : || but Israel 
doth not know ; | my people do not consider. 

In this example there are four clauses : the first two forming one 
member; the latter two, another member. 

In many books, however, the word member is used in its primary 
and more extensive sense, as denoting any portion of a sentence, 
whether a single clause, a phrase, or a word. 

V. A Clause is a simple sentence, or part of a sentence, united 
to another, and contains a nominative and a finite verb, either ex- 
pressed or understood; as, — 

1. That high moral excellence is true greatness | cannot be denied. 

2. Candor is a quality | which all admire. 

3. Though he slay me, | yet will I trust in him. 

4. The smile of gayety may be assumed, | while the heart aches within. 

5. Gentleness often disarms the fierce, | and melts the stubborn. 

When the subject of a proposition is itself a sentence, or contains a 
finite verb, as. in No. 1, above, it is called a nominative clause; when 
a clause begins with a relative pronoun, as the last in No. 2, it is 
termed a relative clause; when clauses are introduced by correspond- 



22 INTRODUCTION. 

ing words, as " though " and " yet " in No. 3, they are named correla- 
tive ; when one clause is subject to another for completeness of sense, 
as those in No. 4, they are called dependent ; and when one is simply 
added to another, co-ordinate or consecutive clauses, as exemplified in 
No. 5. 

VI. A Phrase consists of at least two words, being a form of 
expression, or part of a sentence, which has no finite verb, expressed 
or understood ; and which therefore does not of itself make any asser- 
tion, or form complete sense ; as, — 



1. In haste. 

2. Of all our senses. 

3. By infinite wisdom. 



4. Awkward in person. 

5. Studious of praise. 
6 Useful to artists. 



To confess the truth. 
Law and order. 
A man of wisdom. 



In works on grammar, these and similar expressions are usually called 
imperfect phases ; but the definition just given will preclude the 
necessity of using the epithet. An article or any unemphatic word 
and a noun, or the simple infinitive, — as, a book, the man, to love, — 
will, to avoid circumlocution, be treated in the following pages, not 
as a phrase, but as a word. 

A nominative phrase consists of several words, standing as the 
subject of a pi-oposition. An adjectival, a participial, a prepositional 
phrase, are phrases severally beginning with an adjective, a parti 
ciple, or a preposition. Those phrases, however, which, though 
commencing with a preposition, are used instead of single adverbs, 
are commonly spoken of as adverbial phrases; as, " In haste," for 
hastily. 

VII. Terms and Expressions. — To avoid repetition, a word or 
a phrase is sometimes called a term ; and a phrase or a clause, an 
expression. 

VIII. Parenthetical Words or Expressions are intermediate 
words, phrases, or clauses, which, though required by the sense of the 
passage in which they occur, are not essential to the construction. Of 
these a fuller description, with illustrations, will be given under the 
rule which treats of the mode of punctuating them. 

IX. Correlatives. — When two words express reciprocal rela- 
tions, or correspond one to another, they are termed correlative words ; 
as, " Pompey was not so brave a general as Cassar." — " Though the 
man was intellectually rich, yet he was morally poor." 



DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 23 

Correlatives maybe nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; but those to 
which reference will be made in this work are chiefly of a conjunc 
tive nature, denoting relations of vai'ious kinds, — sometimes that of 
connection, dependence, or consequence; and sometimes of compa- 
rison, similitude, or equality. 

X. Apposition. — Nouns, pronouns, or phrases, or a noun or pro- 
noun and a phrase, are said to be in apposition, when put in the same 
case, and signifying the same thing, or when one is used as explana- 
tory of the other; as, " The river Thames." 

XI. A Series denotes a succession of three or more words, 
phrases, or clauses, joined in construction ; as, — 

1. The hermit's life is private, calm, devotional, and contemplative. 

2. Fire of imagination, strength of mind, and firmness of soul, are rare gifts. 

3. God's love watcheth over all, provideth for all, maketh wise adaptations 

for all. 

The first example exhibits a series of words; the second, of phrases; 
the third, of clauses. What are termed by elocutionists the members 
of a series will in this work be called particulars. 

XII. A Compound Word consists of two or more simple or pri- 
mitive words ; as, — 

1. Fireside. 3. Self-conceit. 

2. Nevertheless. 4. Fellow-workman. 

The simple words in compounds may, in general, be known fr jm 
their being separately current in the language. For the sake of 
brevity, they are sometimes called simples or primitives. 

The term Derivative is restricted to a compound word, the por- 
tions of which are not each separately used in English ; as, manly, 
excitement, consciousness, generalization : prospectus, circumstance, phi - 
ier, 



XIII. The Construction of a sentence is the mode in which its 
materials — its words, phrases, and clauses — are combined and ar- 
ranged. When two or more phrases or expressions qualify others, 
or are qualified by them; when they act as nominatives to the same 
verb ; when they govern the same words or phrases, or are governed 
by the same verbs, participles, or prepositions, — they are said to be 
in the same construction 



24 ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION. 

After the pupil has acquired a knowledge of the 
meaning of the terms just explained, or revived the im- 
pressions which he had previously received from his 
study of syntactical principles, he should state, in his 
own words, the nature and object of Punctuation, and 
then analyze the following extracts, or any other 
piece of composition, into sentences, and their various 
parts : — 

EXERCISE. 

Athens. — If we consider merely the subtlety of disquisition, the 
force of imagination, the perfect energy and elegance of expression, 
which characterize the great works of Athenian genius, we must 
pronounce them intrinsically most valuable. But what shall we say 
when we reflect that from hence have sprung, directly or indirectly, 
all the noblest creations of the human intellect; that from hence were 
the vast accomplishments and the brilliant fancy of Cicero, the with- 
ering fire of Juvenal, the plastic imagination of Dante, the humor 
of Cervantes, the comprehension of Bacon, the wit of Butler, the 
supreme and universal excellence of Shakspeare V All the triumphs 
of truth and genius over prejudice and power, in every country and 
in every age, have been the triumphs of Athens. Wherever ' a few 
great minds have made a stand against violence and fraud, in the 
cause of liberty and reason, there has been her spirit in the midst 
of them , inspiring, encouraging, consoling , — by the lonely lamp of 
Erasmus, by the restless bed of Pascal, in the tribune of Mirabeau, 
in the cell of Galileo, on the scaffold of Sidney. But who shall esti- 
mate her influence on private happiness ? Who shall say how many 
thousands have been made wiser, happier, and better by those pur- 
suits in which she has taught mankind to engage ; to how many the 
studies which took their rise from her have been wealth in poverty, 
liberty in bondage, health in sickness, society in solitude? Her 
power is, indeed, manifested at the bar, in the senate, in the field of 
battle, in the schools of philosophy. But these are not her glory. 
Wherever literature consoles sorrow, or assuages pain ; wherever it 
brings gladness to eyes which fail with wakefulness and tears, and 
ache for the dark house and the long sleep,— there is exhibited, in 
its noblest form, the immortal influence of Athens. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION. 25 

The dervise, in the Arabian tale, did not hesitate to abandon to 
his comrade the camels with their load of jewels and gold, while he 
retained the casket of that mysterious juice which enabled him to 
behold at one glance all the hidden riches of the universe. Surely 
it is no exaggeration to say, that no external advantage is to be com- 
pared with that purification of the intellectual eye which gives us 
to contemplate the infinite wealth of the mental world; all the 
hoarded treasures of its primeval dynasties, all the shapeless ore of 
its yet unexplored mines. This is the gift of Athens to man. Her 
freedom and her power have, for more than twenty centuries, been 
annihilated; her people have degenerated into timid slaves; her lan- 
guage, into a barbarous jargon; her temples have been given up to 
the successive depredations of Romans, Turks, and Scotchmen: but 
her intellectual empire is imperishable. And when those who have 
rivalled her greatness shall have shared her fate ; when civilization 
and knowledge shall have fixed their abode in distant continents ; 
when the sceptre shall have passed away from England ; when, per- 
naps, travellers from distant i-egions shall in vain labor to decipher 
on some mouldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief, — 
shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the 
ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single naked 
fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts, — 
her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth, 
exempt from mutability and decay, immortal* as the intellectual 
principle from which they derived their origin, and over which they 
exercise their control. — T. B. Macaulay : Critical and Miscellaneous 
Essays, vol. hi. pp. 402, 403. 



The Vocation of Poetry. — It is the high and glorious vocation 
of Poesy as well to make our own daily life and toil more beautiful and 
holy to us by the divine ministerings of love, as to render us swift 
to convey the same blessing to our brother. Poesy is love's chosen 
apostle, and the very almoner of God. She is the home of the out 
cast, and the wealth of the needy. For her the hut becomes a palace, 
whose halls are guarded by the gods of Phidias, and kept peaceful 
by the maid-mothers of Raphael. She loves better the poor wanderer 
whose bare feet know by heart the freezing stones of the pavement, 
than the delicate maiden for whose dainty soles Brussels and Turkey 
have been overcareful; and I doubt not but some remembered scrap 
of childish song hath often been a truer alms than all the benevolent 
societies could give. — J. R. Lowell: Conversations, cfc, p. 133. 



26 



CHAPTER II. 

THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS. 



In accordance with the plan proposed in the last section, 
this chapter will be devoted to the consideration of the 
principal sentential marks, namely, — 

1. The Comma [ , J 

2. The Semicolon [ ; ] 

3. The Colon [ : ] 

4. The Period [ . J 

The Comma marks the smallest grammatical division 
of a sentence, and usually represents the shortest pause ; 
the Semicolon and the Colon separate those portions 
which are less connected than those divided by commas, 
and admit each of a greater pause ; and the Period is, 
what its name denotes, a full stop, which commonly ter- 
minates a sentence. 

REMARK. 

The names of the points have been borrowed by grammarians 
from the terms which rhetoricians employed to indicate the various 
kinds of sentences, and the parts of which they consist. Thus the 
Period signified a complete circuit of words ; a sentence, making, 
from its commencement to its close, full and perfect sense. The 
Colon was the greatest member or division of a period or sentence ; 
and the Semicolon, the greatest division of a colon ; while the Comma 
indicated a smaller segment of the period, — the least constructive 
part of a sentence. 



27 



Sect. I. — THE COMMA. 



The Comma [ , ] marks the smallest grammatical 
division in written or printed language, and commonly 
represents the shortest pause in reading or delivery. 

REMARKS. 

a. Agreeably to the principles contended for in the Introduction, 
it will be noticed that the comma is here said, not to mark the small- 
est segment of a composition, but only the least grammatical division ; 
that is, the least portion into which a sentence can be divided, when 
regard is had to the sense, and not to the delivery. But many 
sentences do not at all admit of being divided grammatically; as, 
" The great use of books is to rouse us to thought;" though, when 
considered in a rhetorical or elocutionary light, they should be sepa 
rated into parts, or groups of words, as in reading the example just 
given : " The great use of books | Is J to rouse us | to thought." 

6. It is usual for grammarians to say, that the comma represents 
the shortest pause, and that that pause is equal to the time required 
for counting one ; but the remark admits of so many exceptions as 
to be without any practical value. Numerous instances occur in 
which the comma is so far from indicating the shortest pause, that a 
cessation of the voice equal to the time of counting one, two, if not 
three, is demanded both by the nature of the sentiment and the con- 
struction of the language; as, for instance, after the words "vice" 
and "undertake" in the following sentences: "Virtue is always 
advantageous; vice, never." — "Nations, like men, fail in nothing 
which they boldly undertake, when sustained by virtuous purpose 
and firm resolution." In other instances, the comma does not exhibit 
any pause whatever, but merely the grammatical division, as in the 
expression, " Yes, sir ; " where, in common or unemphatic discourse, 
no pause can be made between the words. 

c. On this subject all elocutionists are agreed. Mr. Maglathlin, in 
the " National Speaker," p. 30, says that " the comma occurs some- 
times where there should be no pause in reading or speaking; nor 
can the length of any required stop be inferred with much certainty 
from the common stop-mark used." Dr. Mandeville, in his "Ele- 



28 THE COMMA. 

merits of Reading and Oratory," p. 82, remarks that " the comma 
does not necessarily represent a pause; " that " it suspends the voice, 
in unimpassi'oned reading or speaking, sufficiently long to draw 
breath; " but that, " under the influence of emotion, its time is inde- 
finite." And the celebrated Walker, in " Rhetorical Grammar," p. 36 
(Boston edition, 1814), when speaking of all the points, admits that 
" these marks sufficiently answer the purposes of written language, 
by keeping the members of sentences from running into each other, 
and producing ambiguity; but, when we regard them as guides to 
pronunciation, they fail us at almost every step." 



RULE I. 

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, connected by the 
Conjunctions and, or, nor. 

Two words, belonging to the same part of speech, or 
used as such, when closely connected by one of the con- 
junctions and, or, nor, are not separated by a comma 
from each other. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness and truth. 

2. Grand ideas and principles elevate or ennoble the mind. 

3. Benefits should be long and gratefully remembered. 

4. Virtue or vice predominates in every man and woman. 

5. Some monks may be said to be neither of nor in the world. 

6. The necessity and the use of physic have been much exaggerated. 

7. It is natural to compassionate those who are suffering and alone. 

REMARK S. 

a. In these examples, it will be seen that the comma is regarded 
as inadmissible, not only between two words united by a conjunction, 
but also after them. Here no point should be used, except when 
they come at the end of a clause or sentence, or form such phrases 
as, from their construction with others, require to be punctuated ; as, 
" To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a scene of tranquil 
enioyments." 



TWO CONJOINED WORDS. 29 

b. Some writers distinguish two connected prepositions by the 
insertion of commas, and would point the fifth example thus : " Some 
monks may be said to be neither of, nor in, the world." But there 
seems to be no valid reason for deviating from the rule; though, 
when prepositions are removed from, and at the same time connected 
with, each other, and are dependent on one and the same term (as in 
the sentence we are just writing, and as in the eighth example under 
Rule V.), a comma is required after each to bring out the sense. 

c. By referring to p. 22, Definition VI., it will be found that the 
insertion of an article between connected words, as in the sixth 
example, does not at all affect the validity of the rule. — In the 
seventh example, the words united by the conjunction are not of the 
same part of speech, unless the phrase be treated elliptically, so as to 
mean "suffering and being alone; " but instances of this or a similar 
kind are obviously subject to the same principle as words of one sort. 

d. When the first of two connected words is qualified by a pre- 
ceding adjective or adverb which is inapplicable to the second, or 
when the latter is followed by a term not belonging to the former, a 
comma is usually required before the conjunction ; as, " Donations 
will be thankfully received, and applied to the benefit of the suffering^ 
poor." — " 'Twas certain he could write, and cipher too." 

e. The comma, however, is not inserted between the conjoined 
words, when the latter is immediately preceded by a qualifying or 
governing word, and both refer to one and the same term ; as, " The 
world has confidence in the judgment and wise conduct of a truly 
honest man." 

f. When two phrases, the former ending and the other beginning 
with a noun, are joined by the conjunction and, or, or nor, they may 
be separated by a comma; as, " Integrity of understanding, and nicety 
of discernment, were not allotted in a less proportion to Dryden than 
to Pope." — " So shall sweet thoughts, and thoughts sublime, my 
constant inspiration be." The comma is also placed after the last 
phrase, when, as in these examples, it relates, equally with the first, 
to the remainder of the sentence. 

g. If, however, the first phrase is preceded by one of the correla- 
tives both, either, neither, or the second by an article, or when the 
phrases are introduced into the body of a sentence necessarily requir- 
ing the insertion of commas, they should be left unpointed ; as, "Both 
integrity of understanding and nicety of discernment were allotted in 
a no less pi-oportion," &c. — " Man is the child of God and the heir 
of immortality." — " As we do, and we must as Protestants, consider 



30 THE COMMA. 

Romanism a false and vicious system of religion or form of Chris- 
tianity, whatever we can lawfully and morally do to stay its progress, 
we not only have a right, but it is our duty, to do." In the last 
example, the two Italicized phrases are not separated by a comma, 
because the advantage of this mode of pointing in a more simply 
constructed sentence would be counterbalanced here by the dis- 
advantages resulting from all the phrases being set off alike. 

h. When the second of two words, united by the conjunction and 
or or, is elliptical, or is inserted as an after-thought or for the sake 
of emphasis, it may be pointed off by commas ; as, " A sense of 
personal propriety would often interrupt, and exclude, an imputa- 
tion of unworthy motives to those who hold opinions opposite to our 
own: " the sense being, " would interrupt, if it would not exclude, an 
imputation," &c. ; or "would interrupt, and indeed exclude.'''' The 
awkwardness of the punctuation, which forms an exception to the 
rule, might usually be avoided by a happier construction of such 
sentences. 

i. When the conjunction or stands between two nouns, or be- 
tween a noun and a phrase, which are synonymous, or of which the 
latter is explanatory of the former, they may be separated by a 
comma from each other; as, "The dwelling of Norma was not 
unaptly compared to the eyry of the ospray, or sea-eagle.'' 1 If the 
explanatory term is intermediate or parenthetical, a comma should 
be placed after each of the terms ; as, " Sin, or moral evil, should 
excite the gi-eatest abhorrence." — See Eule VIII. 

j. Some punctuators would apply the preceding remark as a rule 
to all instances in which one of two words, coupled by the conjunc- 
tion or, is explanatory of the other. In nouns, we think, the comma 
is usually required, to show that the terms, which might otherwise 
be regarded as significant of two ideas or things, are designed to 
represent only one and the same; but the pointing of adjectives and , 
adverbs similarly situated would, in many cases, tend, by the break- 
ing-up of the connection, to confuse, instead of assisting, the reader. 
Besides, it should be remembered that qualifying words are seldom, 
if ever, perfectly synonymous ; and that, even if they were exactly 
of the same signification, the omission of the commas could scarcely 
affect the sense. For instance, this sentence, " He who is devoutly 
or piously disposed to God is also benignant or kind to men," is as 
easily understood as if it were punctuated, " He who is devoutly, 
or piously, disposed to God is also benignant, or kind, to men; '' and, 
tn the unpointed form, is more agreeable to the eye. 



TWO CONJOINED WORDS. 31 



ORAL. EXERCISES. 

After describing the nature and uses of the comma, as mentioned in page 27, state 
the first Rule, and assign the reason why the connected words in the follow- 
ing sentences arc unpointed .- — 

Liberty and eloquence have been united in all ages. 

Some children learn early to sing and to dance. 

We often see rank or riches preferred to merit or talent. 

Let us cherish an earnest and a reverential love of truth. 

The liberal arts soften and harmonize the temper. 

An unjust merchant is neither loved nor respected. 

Be vitally and practically interested in the well-being of all. 

Let nothing be done insincerely or hypocritically. 

Let neither indolence nor vice canker the promise of the heart. 

Within and without us are many foes to rectitude. 



According to Remarks in pages 28—30, state the reasons for the omission or the 
insertion of commas between conjoined words in the following sentences: — 

The youth wrote letters both to and concerning the lady. 

Socrates was a virtuous and a wise man. 

A convenient spot, and surprise, effected his purpose. 

The prophet went, and addressed the people. 

He, and he only, is worthy of our supreme affections. 

Piety and unsullied virtue are venerated even by the wicked. 

Money is the bane of bliss, and source of woe. 

Have both soundness of faith and activity of benevolence. 

Neither purity of aim nor goodness of deed was attributed to hii> 

Regard the rights of persons and the rights of property. 

It may, and must, exist under the circumstances of the case. 

Would you escape, and live; remain, or die? Speak, or perish 

The laverock, or lark, is distinguished for its singing. 

Parenthetical or intermediate words are often used. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Write the following sentences, and punctuate those only which, agreeably to the 
Remarks, should have commas : — 
An ellipsis or omission of words is found in all kinds of composi- 
tion. (Remarks d and i.) 

How many a knot of mystery and misunderstanding would be 
untied by one word spoken in simple and confiding truth of heart 1 



32 THE COMMA. 

A distinction ought to be made between fame and true honor. 
(Remark e.) 

The balmy influences of neither sea nor sky could revive or 
restore him. 

Refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from 
grammatical studies. (Remark/.) 

The greatest genius is never so great as when it is chastised and 
subdued by the highest reason. 

In composition there is a transposed or inverted order of words, 
as well as a conventional or common arrangement. (Remark j.) 

The first end to which all wisdom or knowledge ought to be em- 
ployed is to illustrate the wisdom and goodness of God. 

Morality and religion itself is degraded by the use of unmeaning 
terms. (Remark d.) 

Is it sickness or selfishness that spreads most misery through our 
homes? 

A quickness of observation and an ingenuousness of character are 
often found in very young children. (Rule, and Remarks c, g.) 

The Greek and Roman writers were once understood and relished 
in a remarkable degree. 

Some have neither the resolution nor the power of carrying their 
projects to a completion. (Rule, and Remarks c, g.) 

Pope examined lines and words with minute and punctilious 
observation. 

The nineteenth century has been and is a time of extraordinary 
mental activity. (Remark h.) 

I would calmly and humbly submit myself to the good and blessed 
will of God. 

Let us greet and take by the hand those who were our youthful 
companions. (Remark d.) 

The human heart beats quick at the sight or hearing 1 of courageous 
and disinterested deeds. 

The senses or sensibility of one body may be radically more acute 
than those of another. (Remark i.) 

The most ferocious conflicts have been brightened by examples of 
magnanimous and patriotic virtue. 

It was the greatest act ever done either by or for human beings. 
(Rule, and Remark b.) 

Whenever, therefore, we divide Christianity into doctrines of faith 
and doctrines of practice, we must remember that the division is one 
of our own fabrication. (Rule, and last portion of Remark g.) 



TWO WORDS NOT CONJOINED. 33 



RULE II. 

Two Words, of the same Part of Speech, not connected by a 
Conjunction. 

Two words, of the same part of speech and in the 
same construction, if used without a conjunction between 
them, are separated from each other by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Lend, lend your wings. 

2. The dignity of a man consists in thought, intelligence 

3. Can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 

4. The discipline of suffering nourishes, invigorates virtue. 

5. We are fearfully, -wonderfully made. 

6. Their search extends along, around the path. 

7 Never was beheld a child fairer, more beautiful. 

REMARKS. 

a. The adverbs more, and most, the former of which occurs in the 
seventh example, are considered here as united with the adjectives 
or the adverbs which they qualify. Thus, "more beautiful" is 
equivalent to the single but antiquated word beautifuller. 

b. Besides the comma inserted between two nouns, or between 
two words equivalent to nouns, the same point is put after the last, 
when it does not end a sentence or a clause; as, " Thought, thought, 
is the fundamental distinction of mind." — " Reason, virtue, answer 
one great aim." — " The earth is filled with the labors, the works, of 
the dead." In these and similar instances, the comma is required to 
show that both nouns are equally related to what follows. 

c. But the comma should be omitted after the second of the 
nouns, if it alone is connected in sense with the last portion of the 
clause ; as, " The miseries of war bear the impress of cruelty, of 
hardness of heart." 

d. Strict accuracy seems to require the insertion of a comma after 
the last of the governing and qualifying words in the examples under 
the rule; namely, after "lend," "cold," "invigorates," "wonder- 
fully," "around." But this mode of punctuating is opposed to the 
most reputable usage, and is seldom needed to bring out the sense ; 
not to mention the uncouth appearance which modifying or governing 
words have when standing alone, or in disruption from the context ; 

3 



34 THE COMMA. 

as, " All great works of genius come from deep, lonely, thought.'' 
Contrast the sentence, thus pointed, with " All great works of genius 
come from deep, lonely thought," and the superiority of the latter 
form will be obvious. 

e. When, however, the adjectives or adverbs are used to qualify 
a word that precedes them, a comma should be placed after the 
second, if the clause is unfinished ; as, " The world that is outward, 
material, is the shadow of that which is spiritual." A comma should 
also be placed after the second of two governing words, when they 
precede, not a single word, but a phrase or clause ; as, " To deny 
ourselves is to deny, to renounce, whatever interferes with our con- 
victions of right." 

f. The comma should be omitted between two adjectives, when 
the first qualifies the second adjective and a noun; as, " The emperor 
possessed a beautiful white horse; " that is, the emperor had a white 
horse that was beautiful. Were a comma placed between the adjec- 
tives, the sense would be that he possessed a horse that was beautiful 
and white. 

g. When two adjectives that are not synonymous precede a noun, 
and convey only one idea, they are treated as a compound epithet, 
and united by a hyphen ; as, " The maidens danced amid the festal- 
sounding shades." 

h. If two nouns are used as a compound, whether so written 
or not, or if the former partakes of the nature of an adjective, they 
are not separated by a comma; as, " Walter Scott ranks high as a 
fiction-writer.'''' — " Ward Room, Franklin Schoolhouse, Washington 
Street." Words similar to those mentioned in this and the preceding 
remark will be explained under the " Hyphen." 

i. When a word iterated is the resumption of a sentiment broken 
off, a dash is used before the repetition, instead of a comma; as, 
" But I fear — I fear Richard hardly thought the terms proposed were 
worthy of his acceptance." The punctuation of broken sentences 
will be more fully treated of under the " Dash." 

j. A comma may be put after two adverbs, or after an adverb 
repeated, as well as between them, when they qualify a clause; as, 
" Verily, verily, I say unto you." But when one adverb is followed 
by another, the former qualifying the latter, no comma is admissi- 
ble; as, " The part was remarkably well performed." 

k. The last of two verbs, participles, or prepositions, if used with- 
out governing the words that follow them, is set off with a comma ; 
as, " On, on, when honor calls." 



TWO WORDS NOT CONJOINED. 35 

I. It not unfrequently happens, that two prepositions or conjunc- 
tions come together, without requiring any separation by a marked 
pause; as, " He walks up towards the hill." — " The pupil of a docile 
disposition not only loves, but also venerates, his preceptor." In 
respect, however, to the former example, it may be observed that 
the first preposition is not in construction with the second, but forms 
part of the verb " walk," which is compound, and would in some 
languages be expressed by a single word; and, as to the latter, that 
the conjunctions " but " and " also " are so closely connected in sense 
as to be inseparable in construction. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

Explain how Rule II. requires the insertion of commas between words of the 
same part of speech in the following sentences .- — 

Nothing is so intelligible as sincere, disinterested love. 

Sound, sound the tambourine ! Strike, strike the mandaline ! 

Men live abroad in regions which are milder, more temperate. 

Socrates and Plato were philosophers, sages. 

The outward, material world is the shadow of the spiritual. 

Genius is not a quality of idle, lazy men. 

Rash, fruitless war is only splendid murder. 

Fairly, rightly regarded, religion is the great sentiment of lite. 

Storms purge the air without, within the breast. 



State how the reasons given in the Remarks for the insertion or the omission of 
commas (pp. 33, 34) will apply to the following sentences : — 

It is a matter of the finest, the most deliberate calculation. 

The only test of goodness, virtue, is moral strength. 

Virtue, religion, is the one thing needful. 

Woe, woe, to the rider that tramples them down ! 

A steady, durable good cannot be derived from an external cause. 

Work that is easy, pleasant, does not make robust minds. 

Eemove, expel the blustering, blundering blockhead! 

The history of the humblest human life is a tale of marvels. 

How delightful to gaze at the dark-blue sky! 

Behold that crowd of keen, anxious-looking men. 

Some village Hampden here may rest. 

Mirthfully, wildly, the bright waves flash along. 

A benevolent man is very much esteemed, respected. 

K alien, fallen, is the mighty Babylon ! 



36 THE COMMA. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

In writing the following sentences, punctuate those words only which require 
commas, in accordance with the second Rule and the Remarks : — 

The young shepherd promised to buy me a pretty brown ribbon. 
(Remark/.) 

The man of true refinement will not object to enter into the honest 
heartfelt enjoyments of common life. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

The rosy-crowned Loves, with their many-twinkling feet, frisk 
with antic Sports and blue-eyed Pleasures. (Remark g.) 

A good that is steady durable cannot be derived from an external 
cause. (Rule, and Remark e.) 

The intellect and the conscience are intimately indissolubly bound 
together. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

Employment activity is one of the fundamental laws of human 
happiness. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

Not a few of the wisest grandest spirits have toiled at the work- 
bench and the plough. (Rule, and Remarks d, h.) 

A hardy honest peasantry are the glory of an agricultural 
country. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

Weeping sighing the mother hid the children in her gory vest. 
(Rule, and Remark Tc.) 

The human mind spreads its thoughts abroad into the immea- 
surable the infinite. 

Does not every man feel, that nothing nothing could induce him 
to consent to become a slave? (Rule, and Remark b.) 

All all conjure us to act wisely faithfully in the relation which we 
sustain. (Rule, and Remarks b, j.) 

We should have a deeper a more vivid conviction of the importance 
the sacredness of our work. (Rule, and Remarks a, b.) 

Of intellectual gifts, the rarest the most glorious is great inven- 
tive genius. (Rule, and Remarks a, e, /.) 

Who will deny that imagination refines elevates the other mental 
powers? (Rule, and last sentence in Remark e.) 

The most abandoned men have sometimes professed courage con- 
tempt of mere bodily suffering. (Rule, and Remarks c, f.) 

A desolate lonely feeling springs up of having exchanged their 
home for a distant foreign country. (Rule, and Remarks d, I.) 

All things must work together for certain good, so long as we 
continue in free unconditional self-surrender to the service of God. 
(Rule, and Remarks d, h.) 



SERIES OF WORDS. 37 

rule in. 

Series of Words of the same Part of Speech. 

In a series of words, all of the same part of speech, 
a comma is inserted between each particular. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness. 

2. Alfred the Great was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 

3. Happy is the man who honors, obeys, loves, or serves his Creator. 

4. The discourse was beautifully, elegantly, forcibly delivered. 

5. The spirit of the Almighty is within, around, and above us. 

REMARK S. 

a. Some punctuators omit the comma between the last two par- 
ticulars, when united by either of the conjunctions and, or, nor. But 
the propriety of using the comma will perhaps be obvious to any one 
who examines the nature of such sentences : for the last two words 
of a series are not more closely comiected in sense and construction 
with each other than with the preceding words ; as, "Infancy, child- 
hood, youth, manhood, and age are different stages in human life." 

b. When, however, three words of the same part of speech are 
in juxtaposition, the last being preceded by and or or, but do not 
form a series, the comma is omitted before the conjunction; as, " By 
the wise arrangement of nature, infancy and cliildliood last long." 
Here the noun " nature " is governed by the preposition " of; " and 
the two following nouns, "infancy and childhood," are of themselves 
the compound nominative to the succeeding verb. The punctuation 
therefore, differs from that of a sentence in which three words are 
used in a series, or in the same construction ; as, " Childhood, youth, 
and maturity last longer or shorter in different individual;.'' 

c. In a series of three nouns preceded by an adjective qualifying 
only the first, the comma should be omitted before the conjunction; 
as, " The characteristics of Mr. Mason's mind were real greatness, 
strength and sagacity." 

d. A comma should be put after the last noun in a series, if it is 
not joined to the others by a conjunction, and does not end a sentence 
or clause; as, "Reputation, virtue, happiness, depend greatly on the 
choice of companions." — " The good man is alive to all the sym- 
pathies, the sanctities, the loves, of social existence." "When, how- 
ever, and, or, or nor occurs, the comma is unnecessary after the last 



OO THE COMMA. 

noun, because the conjunction shows that all the particulars have, 
either separately or together, a relation to what foUows in the 
sentence ; as, " Eeputation, virtue, and happiness depend greatly on 
the choice of companions." — "The good man is alive to all the 
sympathies, the sanctities, and the loves of social existence." 

e. When the last particular is one of several qualifying words, it 
must not be separated by a point from that portion of the sentence 
on which it acts ; as, " Too much of our love is an instinctive, 
ungoverned, narrow, selfish feeling." — See p. 33, Remark d. 

f. But a comma should be put after the last adjective or adverb, 
not preceded by a conjunction, when it is separated by the other 
particulars of the series or by a verb from the word qualified, and 
does not finish the clause or sentence ; as, " There is something 
real, substantial, immortal, in Christian virtue." — "Exalted, tender. 
beneficent, is the love that woman inspires." 

g. When the last governing word in a series is preceded by a con- 
junction, a comma is unnecessary after it; but, if written without 
a conjunction, the comma should be inserted ; as, " God's design is 
to recover, exalt, and bless the guiltiest of our race." — " Endeavor to 
elevate, refine, purify, the public amusements." When, however, 
the term governed is only a monosyllabic word, the comma may in 
such cases be omitted; as, " Teach, urge, threaten, lecture him." 

h. When three or more words of the same part of speech, and in 
the same construction, are severally connected by means of and, or, 
or nor, the comma may be omitted after each of the particulars ; as, 
" Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty and wisdom from 
all nature and art and history." Some writers separate all such 
sei'ial words by a comma ; but a mode of punctuation so stiff as this 
seldom aids in developing the sense, and, in sentences requiring other 
commas, is undoubtedly offensive to the eye, if it does not obscure 
the meaning itself. A correct reader will, however, as a matter of 
course, pause more or less after each particular, in accordance with 
the nature of the sentiment. 

i. But, when a series of nouns is resolvable into two or more 
phrases, each having two coupled words, a comma should be used 
between the phrases ; as, " A Christian spirit may be manifested to 
Greek or Jew, male or female, friend or foe." 

j. When, in two or more pairs, only the last pair depends on a 
concluding term, the comma should be omitted after it ; as, " The 
true Christian is a man of principle, of truth and integrity, of kind- 
ness and modestv, of reverence and devotion to the Supreme Glory." 



SERIES OF WORDS. 39 

ORAL, EXERCISES. 

Recite the Rule (p.37)/«r the insertion of commas in the following sentences: — 

Learn patience, calmness, self-command, disinterestedness, love 
The mind is that which knows, feels, and thinks. 
Honor, affluence, and pleasure seduce the heart. 
Milton's poetry is always healthful, bright, and vigorous. 
The child can creep, skip, walk, or run. 

Let great principles be wrought into the mind, the heart, the life. 
The work was neither dexterously, quickly, nor well done. 
The love that woman inspires is exalted, tender, and beneficent. 



Agreeably to the Remarks (pp.37, 38). state the reasons for the insertion or tin 
omission of commas in the following sentences : — 

Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian are high authorities in rhetoric. 

The tendency of poetry is to refine, purify, expand, and elevate 

God is the source, object, model, of perfect love. 

The air, the earth, the water, teem with delighted existence 

His reign is that of a great, godlike, disinterested being. 

Wise, eloquent, cautious, intrepid, was Ulysses. 

The arts prolong, comfort, and cheer human life. 

Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things. 

The man professed neither to eat nor drink nor sleep. 

The poor and rich, and weak and strong, have all one Fathei 



Say why the omission of a comma between the last two conjoined nouns in the 
following sentences does not accord icitii the Rule, but with Remark b: — 

In Paradise, Adam and Eve reigned supreme. There was, in 
Eve's every gesture, dignity and love. 

According to the Thompsonian philosophy, heat and cold are 
antagonist identities. 

In two branches of science, chemistry and natural history, medi- 
cal men have been the most successful laborers. 

It is well calculated to render the timber impenetrable to the 
agents of decomposition, — air and moisture. 

Dr. TwitcheLTs wonderful faculty often rendered the unintelligible 
plain and clear. 

In reference to time, hours and days are of great importance: in 
respect to eternity, years and ages are nothing. 



40 THE COMMA. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. , 

In putting commas between or after the serial words in the following sentences^ 
be guided by the third Rale and the Remarks (pp. 37, 38): — 

Let holiness goodness virtue be to you the pearl of great price. 
(Eule, and first portion of Kemark d.) 

The recovery of our little darling dancing singing Mary is worth 
all the gold that ever was mined. (Rule, and Remark e.) 

The hardships of a good life prove refine and exalt the human 
character. (Eule, and first portion of Remark g.) 

No one can find peace hut in the growth of an enlightened firm 
disinterested holy mind. (Rule, and Remark e.) 

Ease indulgence luxury sloth are the sources of misery; making a 
man a poor sordid selfish wretched being. (Rule, and Remarks d, e.) 

A great soul is known by its enlarged strong and tender sympa- 
thies. (Rule, Remark e, and last of d.) 

All that charms the eye or the ear or the imagination or the heart 
is the gift of God. (Remark h.) 

The Indian nut alone is clothing, meat and trencher drink and 
can. (Remark i.) 

All have some conceptions of truth kindness honesty self-denial 
and disinterestedness. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

In a city there is much to inflame imbitter degrade the minds 
of the poor. (Rule, and second portion of g.) 

Let us every day become more pure kind gentle patient spiritual 
and devout. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

Meekly truthfully disinterestedly the dying man had trod the path 
of life. (Rule, and Remark /.) 

In heaven live the friends benefactors deliverers ornaments of their 
race. (Rule, and first of Remark d.) 

True courage is the exercise result and expression of the highest 
attributes of our nature. (Rule, and last of Remark d.) 

Some have unreasonably denied the strength and fervor and en- 
duringness of human love. (Remark h.) 

The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the old 
Persian the Syriac and the Chaldee. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

You are a parent or a child a brother or a sister a husband or a 
wife a friend or an associate of some kindred soul. (Remark j.) 

Our present knowledge thoughts feelings characters are the 
results of former impressions passions and pursuits. (Rule, and 
Remarks d. a.) 



WORDS IN APPOSITION. 41 

RULE IV. 
Nouns or Phrases in Apposition, 

§ I. Two nouns or personal pronouns, or a noun and 
pronoun, one in apposition with the other, should not 
be separated by a comma, if they may be regarded as 
a proper name or as a single phrase. 

§ II. But a noun or pronoun and a phrase, or two or 
more phrases, when put in apposition, are separated by 
a comma from each other, and, if the sentence or clause 
is unfinished, from what follows. 

EXAMPLES. 

§1. 

1. The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry. 

2. It is well known that the word " philosopher " signifies lover of wisdom 

3. He himself was the editor of the work ; but he left it a botch. 

§n. 

1. Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to hare been blind. 

2. We, the people of the United States , are lovers of republicanism. 
fS. The twin sisters, Piety and Poetry, are wont to dwell together. 

REMARKS. 

a. The term noun here is so used as to apply either to a single 
word of this character, or to an unemphatic word and a noun. Thus, 
both words, " the poet," in the first example, are, to avoid circum- 
locution, spoken of as a noun, and not as a phrase. 

b. When two or more words can be treated as one compound 
name or as a single phrase, they do not admit a comma between 
them; as, "Alexander of Macedon; Sir William Jones; our Lord 
Jesus Christ; the Lord God Almighty." But if names, titles, or 
characteristics are so applied as to vary the thought, or produce 
a separate impression on the mind, they should be set apart by a 
comma; as, "Worship thy Creator, God; and obey his Son, the 
Master, King, and Saviour of men." 

c. The word brothers, when put in apposition with a proper name 
in a firm, is left unpointed; as, "Smith Brothers and Co." But 
when used, either in the singular or plural number, to convey the 
notion of another person, it is not in apposition, and must therefore 
be distinguished by the comma; as, " Smith, Brother, and Co." 



42 THE COMMA. 

d. Proper names, when inverted, are separated by a comma; as, 
"James, Thomas; Williamson, John ; " meaning Thomas James and 
John Williamson. 

e. After the word price, when immediately preceding the value 
of any commodity, the comma may be omitted; as, "Price $5," or 
" Price fifty cents." 

f. A comma is put between two nouns or pronouns if used syno- 
nymously, or if th*e latter expresses an illustrative or an additional 
thought; as, "Force of voice is strength, energy; vivacity is life, 
animation.'''' — " A son, John, was born after his father's death." 

g. When a proper name is put after a phrase in apposition, the 
comma may be omitted ; as, " The great orator Cicero was famed for 
many excellences." Unless where the noun is introduced by way 
of explanation or parenthesis; and, in such a case, it is preceded by 
a comma, and, in an unfinished clause, followed by the same point ; 
as, " The wisest of the Jewish kings, Solomon, became a fool." 

h. When the first of two nouns of the possessive case has the sign 
of possession, a comma should intervene between them; as, "The 
work will be found at Appleton's, the bookseller." But, if the posses- 
sive sign is omitted after the first noun, and put after the second, 
the comma may be dispensed with ; as, " It will be seen at Putnam 
the publisher's." Should, however, this mode of writing be so con- 
structed as to have, for the unmarked possessive, several names 
constituting a firm, a comma should be inserted before the noun 
ending with the s and apostrophe; as, " The young man is a clerk 
at Little, Brown, and Company, the publishers' ; " the awkwardness of 
the punctuation here arising from the clumsiness of the expression. 

i. If a term, preceding a noun or a pronoun, is used absolutely, 
a comma is inserted only between them; as, "A trifling scholar. 
he heeds not the lessons of instruction." 

j. When a pronoun of the second person immediately precedes a 
noun, a relative pronoun, or a word or phrase used for a noun, the 
comma is unnecessary between them ; as, " Thou river, roll ; ye who 
are aged, come; all ye high Powers." But if the pronoun, as the 
nominative to a verb, or as the antecedent of a relative, is separated 
from them, or if it is put in the objective case, a comma should be 
put before and after the intervening term ; as, " Thou, Father, marJcest 
the tears I shed." " What art thou, execrable shape, that darest 
advance? " " On thee, beloved, I wait." 

h. When the latter of two nouns or phrases is predicated of the 
former, the comma is not required between them ; as, " Plutarch calls 



WORDS IN APPOSITION. 43 

lying the vice of slaves." — " The Komans thought Augustus Caesar a 
god." — "I consider Dr. Johnson as an excellent moralist." So also 
if the subject spoken of be a pronoun; as, " The people elected him 
president of the United States." 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

Sliow how tlie following sentences exemplify the fourth Rule, in respect to the 

insertion or omission of commas .- — 

Friends, the beloved of my bosom, were near. 

Mahomet -was a native of Mecca, a city in Arabia. 

The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent work on morals. 

The term "reason " has been variously denned. 

Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, lived in a tub. 

Bowditch the astronomer translated the " Mecanique Celeste." 

Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest. 

The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 

Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune. 

Spenser the poet lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

Art thou that traitor angel who first broke peace in heaven V 

I Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles. 

I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto thee. 



Say why, according to the Remarks (pp. 41, 42), commas are inserted or omitted 
in the following sentences : — 

The emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. 

The frigate " Jamestown " conveyed corn to Vne suffering Irish. 

God is a Father-God, a God of paternal love. 

To thee we bow, Friend, Father, King of kings ! 

"Adjunct" is derived from adjunctum, addition, something added. 

Ease, rest, owes its deliciousness to toil. 

"William was slain; leaving one child, Alice. 

The eloquent preacher Massillon was a Frenchman. 

The author of " Paradise Lost," Milton, was a noble-minded man. 

At Thomson the hatter's store. At Thomson's, the hatter. 

A brave boy, he could not injure others. 

Thou whose love can ne'er forget its offspring, man ! 

Ye powers and spirits of this nethermost abyss. 

Thou, Lord, art the life and light of all this wondrous world. 

All agree in designating Howard a philanthropist. 



44 THE COMMA. 

EXEKCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Insert commas where, according to pages 41-43, they are required : — 

In Greek, the word " poet " denotes a maker a creator. (Rule, 
§ i.; and Remarks a, f.) 

The apostle John was peculiarly beloved by his divine Master 
Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

The capital of Turkey Constantinople is finely situated on the 
European side of the Bosphorus. (Last of Remark g.) 

General Washington the first president of the United States was a 
true patriot a genuine lover of his country. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus says, " Often return to your true 
mother philosophy." (Remark &, first portion; and Remark /.) 

Much stress was laid upon pronunciation delivery by the most 
eloquent of all orators Demosthenes. (Remark f, and last of g.) 

London the capital of Great Britain contains nearly three millions 
of inhabitants. (Rule, § n.) 

A great and gloomy man the king sat upon the throne of his 
ancestors. (Remark i.) 

I recommend the reading of good books as a source of improve- 
ment and delight. (Remark h.) 

The first expedition of Columbus was fitted out by John of Anjou 
Duke of Calabria. (Rule, § n.; and Remark b.) 

Thou who hast at thy command the hearts of all men in thy 
hand ! (First of Remark j.) 

1 Artaxerxes the king decree that whatsoever Ezra the priest the 
scribe of the law shall require, &c. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

You blocks! u you stones! you worse than senseless things! 
you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome ! (First of Remark j.) 

And, when the angel Death stands by, be thou my God my helper 
nigh. (Rule, Remark 6, and last of./.) 

When, as returns this solemn day, man comes to meet his Maker 
God. (Last of Remark b.) 

The world-famed dramatist Shakspeare lived in the reign of the 
greatest of English queens Elizabeth. (Remark g.) 

Adonijah the son of Haggith wme to Bathsheba the mother of 
Solomon. (Rule, § n.) 

In the firm of Graham Brother and Co. there are three persons in 
partnership, — James Graham, his younger brother, and John Jones ; 
but I do not know how many there are in the firm of Kennedy 
Brothers, — whether there be two or more. (Remark c.) 



WORDS OR PHRASES IN CONTRAST. 45 

KULE V. 
Words or Phrases in Contrast. 
Words or phrases contrasted with each other, or 
having a mutual relation to others that follow them, in 
the same clause, are separated by commas. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. False delicacy is affectation, not politeness. 

2. The author of that work was a distinguished poet, but a bad man. 

3. Many persons gratify their eyes and ears, instead of their understandings. 

4. Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles. 

5. Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. 

6. One may utter many pompous, and speak but few intelligible, words. 

7. Avoid, or rather prevent the introduction of, so pernicious a fashion. 

8. Good men are not always found in union with, but sometimes in oppositior 

to, the views and conduct of one another 

EEJIAKK S. 

a. Not a few authors woiild write the sixth example without a 
comma after the adjective "intelligible." But though it is well to 
avoid the use of the point after a qualifying or a governing word when 
its omission could effect no ambiguity, as in the phrase " deep, lonely 
thought," and others referred to in p. 33, Eemark d; yet where, as 
in the instance under the present rule, the -words or phrases, which 
have a common hearing on one and the same expression, are apart, 
and the first is properly set off by a comma, the insertion of a cor- 
responding comma after the second seems requisite for an easy 
obtaining of the sense. And this, indeed, is the usage of the best, 
though perhaps not of the most numerous, punctuators. 

b. The seventh and eighth examples are introduced here, not as 
models of composition, but to show that the harshness of their con- 
struction demands a corresponding rigor in the mode of punctuation. 
This, however, the student may sometimes avoid in his own compo- 
sition, by giving to his style greater freedom and elegance. For 
instance, the seventh example m : ght be thus constructed and pom ted: 
"Avoid so pernicious a fashion, or rather prevent its introduction." 

c. When two contrasted or related words, united by either of the 
conjunctions but, though, yet, as weU as, qualify a following noun or 
phrase, or refer to the same preposition, the comma may be omitted : 
a9, " Caesar delivered his orations in elegant but powerful language." 



46 THE COMMA. 

"He was n great though an erring man." — "Hercules had the 
strength as well as the courage of the lion." 

d. But if the adverb not, either with or without a conjunction, 
comes between two such words, a comma should be used after each, 
in accordance with the Rule, to indicate their common dependence 
on the last portion of the sentence ; as, " The strong and violent 
emotions are the natural produce of an early, if not of a savage, 
state of society." 

e. If the above-mentioned conjunctions unite not two words, but 
a word and a phrase, or two phrases, the commas should be inserted ; 
as, " Intemperance not only wastes the earnings, but the health and 
minds, of men." 

/. Two words or phrases connected by but or yet, or if either of 
these conjunctions be understood, are separated by a comma, when 
the first term is preceded by not or though ; as, " Not beautiful, but 
graceful." — " Though black, yet comely; and though rash, benign." 

g. Commas should not be used between words contrasted in pairs, 
and having prepositions or conjunctions between them; as, "Let 
elevation without turgidness, purity without primness, pathos without 
whining, characterize our style." — "Nothing is more wise or more 
admirable in action than to be resolute and yet calm, earnest and yet 
self-possessed, decided and yet modest." 

h. When a negative word or phrase is put before an affirmative 
one, and does not commence the sentence, the phrases are separated 
by a comma, not only from each other, but from that portion of the 
sentence with which they are connected ; as, " The greatest evils 
arise to human society, not from wild beasts, but from untamed pas- 
sions." 

t*. If, however, the word expressing negation is not put in imme 
diate connection with one of the phrases, but in that portion of the 
sentence on which they depend ; or if a finite verb, active or neuter, 
immediately precedes the negative, the comma should be omitted 
before the first phrase ; as, " The greatest evils do not arise to human 
society from wild beasts, but from untamed passions." — "The 
greatest evils to human society arise not from wild beasts, but from 
untamed passions." — " It is not from wild beasts, but from untamed 
passions, that the greatest evils arise to human society." 

j. In some instances, where the insertion of a comma between 
contrasted phrases, used as a compound intermediate expression, 
would tend to obscure the connection subsisting between the parts 
of a sentence, the point between the phrases may be omitted ; as 



WORDS OK PHRASES IN CONTRAST. 47 

" The wise and good of every name are, with diversity of gifts but 
the same spirit, striving, each in his own way, to carry society for- 
ward into a healthier condition than the present." By inserting a 
comma after " gifts," — a mode of pointing which is correct in itself, 
— the relation between the verb " are " and the participle " striving " 
would be in some measure concealed from the eye. 

Tc. The principle of omission exemplified in the preceding remark 
may be occasionally applied to sentences of a different construction, 
where words or expressions, admitting a comma without its being 
essential to the sense, are united to others from which the commas 
cannot at all be excluded. If this principle is judiciously applied, 
the relations and dependencies of the several parts of a sentence will 
be often exhibited to much advantage. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 
Why, according to the fifth Rule, should certain words and phrases in the fol- 
lowing sentences be set off by commas! — 

Truth is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain. 
Measure your life by acts of goodness, not by years. 
Intrinsic worth, and not riches, ought to procure esteem. 
Speak for, not against, the principles of love and peace. 
You were paid to fight against, and not to rail at, Alexander. 
Washington was the head of the nation, and not of a party. 
Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 
Rhetoric is the science, and oratory the art, of speaking well- 
There are few voices in the world, but many echoes. 



State the principles, as given in the Remarks, for the omission or the insertion 
of commas in the following sentences : — 

Philosophy makes us wiser, Christianity makes us better, men. 

Milton burned with a deep yet calm love of moral grandeur. 

He was not only the teacher but the model of his pupils. 

Socrates was directed by a good, if not a divine, genius. 

Learning is the ally, not the adversary, of genius. 

The man suffered not only in his estate, but in his reputation. 

It is the duty of a child, not to direct, but to obey, his parents. 

Religion dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart. 

To die for truth is not to die for one's country, but for the world 

We ought not to betray, but to defend, our country. 



48 THE COMMA. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Punctuate those sentences which require commas, in accordance with the princi- 
ples laid down in the preceding Rule and Remarks (pp. 45-47) : — 

It is not the business of virtue to extirpate the affections but to 
regulate them. (Rule, and Remark i.) 

We live in deeds not years ; in thoughts not breaths ; in feelings 
not in figures on a dial. (Rule.) 

Novel-reading is generally calculated to weaken if not to debase 
the moral powers. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

Punishments often shock instead of harmonizing with the com- 
mon feeling and sense of justice. (Rule.) 

Most of Homer's defects may reasonably be imputed not to his 
genius but to the manners of the age in which he lived. (Rem. h.) 

He who is insensible to praise is either raised far above or sunk 
much below the ordinary standard of human nature. (Rule.) 

Knowledge is conducive if not essential to all the ends of virtue 
(Rule, and Remark d.) 

Zeal without knowledge, prudence without courage, and peace- 
fulness without principle, are dangerous qualities. (Remark g.) 

Christians have cast away the spirit in settling the precise dignity 
of their Master. (Rule.) 

The Pyrrhonists not only doubted of every thing they saw and 
heard but of their own existence. (Rule, and Remark i.) 

A lofty rectitude marked every small as well as every great 
action of Washington's life. (Remark c.) 

The treasures of wisdom are not to be seized with a violent hand 
but to be earned by persevering labor. (Rule, and Remark i.) 

The literature of a nation is one of its highest and certainly one 
of its most refined elements of greatness and order. (Rule.) 

Those who flatter the prejudices of others are the enemies not the 
friends of the improvement and happiness of mankind. (Remark d.) 

God's love to us is not a technical dogma but a living and practi- 
cal truth. (Rule.) 

Christianity may harmonize with but it needs not the sanction of 
philosophy. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

A man's self-reproach may be less for what one has than for what 
he has not done. (Rule.) 

Whenever words are contrasted with contradistinguished from 
or opposed to other words, they are always emphatical. (Rule, and 
Remark b.) 



WORDS OR PHRASES IN CONTRAST. 49 

Motives of the most sincere though fanciful devotion induced the 
old man to renew the half-defaced inscriptions on the tombs of his 
ancestors. (Remark c.) 

Benevolence is not merely a feeling hut a principle; not a dream 
of rapture for the fancy to indulge m but a business for the hand to 
execute. (Rule, and Remark f.) 

The missionary went forth, not only with the wisdom of the ser- 
pent but with the simplicity of the dove, to do battle against every 
form of error and vice. (Remark j.) 

Society proceeds from barbarity to refinement, from ignorance to 
knowledge, from wealth to corruption, and from corruption to ruin. 
(Remark g.) 

Every one can distinguish an angry from a placid a cheerful from 
a melancholy a thoughtful from a thoughtless and a dull from a pene- 
trating countenance. (Remarks #, a, and Rule.) 

Though unavoidable calamities make a part yet they make not 
the chief part of the vexations and sorrows that distress human life. 
(Rule, and Remark/".) 

The great object of education is not to store the mind with 
knowledge but to give activity and vigor to its powers. (Remark i, 
and Rule.) 

We are so made as to be capable not only of perceiving but also 
of being pleased with or pained by the various objects by which we 
are surrounded. (Rule, and Remarks h, b.) 

From the hour at which printing" was invented, the brain and not 
the arm, the thinker and not the soldier, books and not kings, were 
to rule the world. (Remark g.) 

A rhetorical sometimes a grammatical pause should be used after 
words in apposition with or in opposition to each other. (Rule, and 
Remarks a, b.) 

Poetry is a voice that issues from and finds its echoes in the deep 
popular heart, where lies the source of all faith and of all enthusiasm 
for good. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

Contrasted faults through all their manners reign : 

Though poor luxurious ; though submissive vain ; 

Though grave yet trifling ; zealous yet untrue ; 

And, even in penance, planning sins anew. (Rule, and Remark /.) 

By the side of man should stand woman, — not Amazonian but 
angelic; gentle yet godlike in works of knowledge and duty; meek 
yet mighty in all the miracles of charity and benevolence. (Rule, . 
and Remark/.) 

4 



50 THE COMMA. 

RULE VI. 

The Subject and the Predicate. 

No point, or pause-mark, is admissible between the 
subject or nominative and the predicate, or after any 
word that has a direct bearing on an expression which 
immediately follows. 

E XAMPLES. 

1. Poetry has a natural alliance with the best affections of the human heart 

2. A grandee on the exchange may be a pauper in God's universe. 

3. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. 
i. The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul. 

REMARKS. 

a. In the above examples, the words "poetry," "grandee," "to 
be indifferent " (equivalent to the noun indifference), and " love," 
are the several nominatives to the verbs " has," " may be," and " is." 
Such phrases as " a grandee on the exchange," " to be totally indif- 
ferent to praise or censure," are sometimes called nominative phrases ; 
and such an expression as " the love which survives the tomb," a 
nominative clause. (See pp. 21, 22 ; V., VI.) But, logically speaking, 
all these are the subjects of what are severally predicated of them. 

b. In these examples, with a partial exception in the first, the 
nominatives and verbs are accompanied by certain modifying or 
limiting phrases, so strictly connected in sense with the former as to 
be grammatically inseparable from them. In other words, each of 
the sentences expresses an uninterrupted flow of thought, and there- 
fore allows no marked division. 

c. There is, however, a class of sentences in which the subject or 
the predicate is accompanied with expressions, qualifying or expla- 
natory, that are separable from the portions with which they are 
connected ; as, " The weakest reasoners, especially on the subject of 
religion, are, generally speaking, the most positive." — " Health, which 
is God's gift, should be preserved." Expressions of this kind are 
sometimes termed parenthetical or intermediate, and will be particu- 
larly considered under Rule VIII. In every such case, two commas 
must be used, as above, to show the relation of the nominative to its 
verb, and that of the verb to the chief words in the predicate. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 51 

d. In the rule, it is said that no pause-ma7'& is admissible under 
certain circumstances, therein specified. This qualification of the 
principle laid down will be clearly understood, if the learner bear in 
mind that pauses are of two kinds : first, those which are marked, or 
represented to the eye, by. the common grammatical points, exhibit- 
ing the constituent parts of sentences; and, second, those which are 
unmarked, — such rhetorical pauses as are omitted in writing and 
printing, but required in reading aloud. Thus, in the examples under 
the rule, the sense and the construction alike forbid the comma to 
interfere in separating the nominative or subject from the verb; and 
yet a correct elocution demands between them a slight pause. 

e. From want of attending to the distinction between these two 
kinds of pauses, some writers would place a comma immediately 
before the verb, when its subject consists of a number of words, or, 
as it is commonly expressed, when the nominative is accompanied 
with an inseparable adjunct; as, " The good taste of the present age, 
has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language." 
But unless where, in any given sentence, the length of the subject 
would give rise to ambiguity or to difficulty in reading it, this mode 
of punctuation seems to be useless. Indeed the reason assigned on 
its behalf is a sufficient ground for its rejection; namely, that the 
nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct. For if the 
adjunct cannot be separated from the nominative, and if the nomi- 
native is intimately joined in sense with the verb which it governs, 
surely the relation subsisting between them should not be broken up, 
except in cases where it is absolutely necessary. That such adjuncts, 
too, are as intimately and grammatically connected with the verb as 
they are with the nominative, and that they cannot well stand apart, 
will he obvious from the example already given, which means that 
" the good taste of the present age has not allowed us" — and not 
that " the good taste has not allowed us " — "to neglect the cultiva- 
tion of the English language." Sentences of this kind are obviously 
very different from those in which adjuncts, or modifying words, are 
separable both from the nominative and from the verb, as in the 
examples cited in Remark c, where a comma, both before and after 
the intervening phrase, serves to hring together the parts related to 
each other. The pointing objected to is based on a theory which 
cannot be reduced to practice, — that every expression, separated 
from another by the smallest cessation of the voice, should be indi- 
cated by a mark ; but we again repeat, that only by the sense and 
the grammatical form of a passage, and not by the rhetorical mode 



52 THE COMMA. 

of its delivery, must the art of punctuation be regulated, at least so 
far as the common points are concerned. 

f. To the rule here recommended, there are, however, sevwai 
exceptions, required by the peculiar form in which a proposition is 
sometimes expressed, and by the fact that the insertion of a comma 
between the subject and the predicate tends occasionally to a clearer 
perception of an author's meaning. The exceptions are as follow : — 

g 1. When a sentence is so constructed as to leave it uncertain 
whether a modifying word belongs to the subject or the predicate, — 
as in the passage, " The man of talent merely is strong for enterprise 
aui execution," — a comma should be introduced where it will best 
develop the sense. If the aim of the writer was to speak of a man 
of mere talent, the comma should be inserted after the adverb 
" merely; " but, if of a man of talent who is strong only for enter- 
prise and execution, it should be placed before the adverb. The 
sentence, indeed, might have been written in accordance with syn- 
tactic principles, which would have precluded the necessity of 
transgressing one of the chief laws in punctuation; but the province 
of the punctuator is not to change the construction of sentences, but 
to bring out their meaning in so far as his art will permit him. 

g 2. When the subject consists of two or more nouns not united 
by a conjunction, a comma is required before the predicate; as, 
" Immensity, sublimity, are expressed by a prolongation of the voice." 
- 1,1 - Riches, pleasure, health, become evils to those who do not know 
how to use them." If, however, the nouns are joined by a conjunc- 
tion, the comma between the subject and the predicate is omitted: 
as, " Sculpture, painting, and poetry will always have admirers." — 
See pp. 33, b ; 37, d. 

g 3. When the nominative is followed by two or more words 
which belong to it, and between which a comma must be inserted, a 
comma is required also before the verb ; as, " A new feeling of what 
is due to the ignorant, the poor, and the depraved, has sprung up in 
society." — " Worlds above, around, and beneath, arch thee about 
as a centre." 

g 4. When between the extremities, either of a nominative clause 
or of its predicate, occurs a word or an expression requiring to be 
marked off by commas, a comma should also be introduced imme- 
diately before the predicate ; as, " The success with which Rousseau 
passed, coarse and selfish as he was, for a man of deep and tender 
feeling, appears to have been the signal for a procession of writers to 
withdraw the public attention from their own transgressions." — 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 53 

" The evil which is intermixed in human society, serves, without ques- 
tion, to exercisa the noblest virtues of the human soul." If, however, 
the subject is not a clause, but a phrase, it should not be separated 
by a comma from the pi-edicate, though the latter contains a word 
or an expression enclosed by commas; as, "A sincere and honest 
man may, in truth, do such work as shall make him a benefactor to 
his neighborhood." 

g 5. When the subject consists of a nominative clause, ending 
with a noun or pronoun, which is apt to be read so closely with the 
predicate as to confound the sense, a comma should precede the 
verb; as, " Who does nothing, knows nothing." — "That a peculiar 
state of the mei-e particles of the brain should be followed by a change 
of the state of the sentient mind, is truly wonderful." — "He that 
sees a building as a common spectator, contents himself with speak- 
ing of it in the most general terms ; " a sentence which, if left un- 
pointed, might, unless more than ordinary attention was given, be 
blunderingly read, " He that sees a building, as a common spectator 
contents himself with speaking of it," &c. 

g 6. When a nominative clause contains two verbs, with one of 
which it ends, a comma is required before the predicate ; as, " He 
that places himself neither higher nor lower than he ought to do, 
exercises the truest humility." 

g 7. When the subject ends and the predicate begins with the 
same verb, or with two verbs of a like form, a comma should be 
placed between them ; as, " Whatever is, is right." — " The defendant 
served, moved to set aside the summons." 

g 8. When a subject is repeated in a different form before its 
verb, as sometimes ungrammatically occurs, a comma may be used, 
in solemn or forcible language, between the two forms ; as, " The 
works that I do in my Father's name, they bear witness of me." 
But, when these modes of expression are used in familiar kinds of 
writing, it is better to omit the comma; as, " My flocks they do wan 
der." In another part of the work, it will be seen that a dash ( — ) 
is employed in sentences of this construction, when they are highly 
rhetorical. 

h. By a colloquial idiom, the subject is sometimes found both at 
the beginning and the end of a proposition. In such cases, a comma 
is inserted before the repeated subject; as, " He was a distinguished 
philosopher, Socrates." 

i. The above exceptions may appear, from their number, to over- 
throw the rule; but some of them, it will be seen, are in opposition 



54 



THE COMMA. 



to it, only because the sentences themselves are contrary to the laws 
of good or elegant composition. As for the others, it may be re- 
marked, that, if a competent person take up any well-written essay 
or discourse in the English language, he will perceive that the prin- 
ciple contained in the rule is applicable to so overwhelming a number 
of sentences, as to render the exceptions, were there ten times more 
than we have pointed out, quite insignificant. 

j. A comma should not be inserted after any of the forms of the 
verb to be, when used as a copula, or connecting link, between 
the subject and the predicate ; or before a verb in the infinitive 
mood, when preceded by another verb; as, " The sole object of im- 
portance is the moral development of society." — " It ill becomes wise 
and good men to oppose and degrade one another." Some writers 
would insert a comma; but the punctuating of such sentences as 
these, where the parts are so closely related, is unnecessarily stiff, 
though between them a correct delivery requires a pause 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

Explain how it is, that, according to the sixth Rule (p. 50), commas are unne 
cessary in the following propositions •• — 

Nature has given aU men some conceptions of immortality. 
The region beyond the grave is not a solitary land. 
Simplicity of life and manners produces tranquillity of mind. 
The Almighty sustains and conducts the universe. 
Human affairs are in continual motion and fluctuation. 
To calculate shrewdly is different from meditating wisely. 
An Epicurean world makes an Epicurean God. 
The earth- clod of the globe has been divinely breathed upon. 
Aptitude for business is not power of reason. 
The best monuments of the virtuous are their actions. 
Misery is the necessary result of a deviation from rectitude. 
Sensitiveness to the approbation of virtuous men is laudable. 
The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. 
Intemperance is the grossest abuse of the gifts of Providence. 
A desire of knowledge is natural to the mind of man. 
" Know thyself" is a useful and comprehensive precept. 
His being a scholar prevented any gross mistake in his style. 
To be proud and inaccessible is to be timid and weak. 
He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy. 
Our intellectual powers may be indefinitely enlarged. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 55 

Mention why, in accordance with the Remarks on pages 50-54, the sentences that 
follow are pointed or unpointed with commas .- — 

Light, whether it be material or spiritual, is the best reformer. 

He who teaches, often learns himself. 

Those who were not so, became cringing and hypocritical 

He who made it, now preserves and governs it. 

A youth, a boy, a child, might understand the question. 

Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several of the constellations. 

The idea of what ought to be, rises up from the bosom of what is. 

Whoever firmly wills, will be a good man. 

Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 

The careless poet of Avon, was he troubled for his fame ? 

And Harry's flesh it fell away. — But John he cried in vain. 

He seemed wanting in every good affection, Nero. 

He groweth rich, that fawning and supple parasite. 

It needs a divine man to exhibit any thing divine. 

It is our duty to appropriate our time to valuable purposes. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Insert commas only where required by the preceding Remarks .- — 

Reason and true philosophy never attempt, in their conclusions, to 
separate God from his works. (Rule, and last of Remark g 4.) 

Times of general calamity and confusion have ever been productive 
of the greatest minds.* 

It is not in our power to change the established order of things. 
(Remark /, and Rule.) 

Patience with the erring and offending is one of the holiest of all 
forms of chai-acter. 

He who being master of the fittest moment to crush his enemy 
magnanimously neglects it is born to be a conqueror. (Rem. c, g 4.; 

One of the arts that tend most to the improvement of human 
intellect is the art of language. 

Philosophy, religion tend to promote just and honorable views of 
the Creator of the universe. (First of Remark g 2.) 

The most sublime speculation of the contemplative philosopher 
can scarcely compensate for the neglect of the smallest active duty. 

The highest art of the mind of man is to possess itself with tran- 
quillity in the hour of danger. (Rule, and Remark j.) 

* The sentences, in this exercise, to which no references are attached, may be 
compared with the Rule and with Remarks a— e, pp. 50, 5L 



56 THE COMMA. 

To mourn deeply for the death of another loosens from myself tho 
petty desire for life. (Remark g 5.) 

The vigorous character of composition depends on the decision 
with which the mind grasps a truth. 

That our age holds an amount of refinement and civilization that 
preceding ages did not have seems evident. (Remark g 6.) 

An excessive or indiscriminate reading of novels and romances is 
exceedingly injurious to the young. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously comprehends the whole 
of our duty. (Remark g 1 or 3.) 

Sincere respect for the men of early times may be joined with a 
clear perception of their weaknesses and errors. 

He who loves the bristle of bayonets only sees in their glitter what 
beforehand he felt in his heart. (Remark g 1.) 

To walk beneath the porch is still infinitely less than to kneel 
before the cross. 

The swan whose neck is out of all proportion to his body is the 
most beautiful of all birds. (Remark c.) 

The great sources of intellectual power and progress to a people 
are its strong and original thinkers. 

He who troubles himself more than he needs grieves also more 
than is necessary. (Remark g 6 or 7.) 

The grammatical points are not sufficient to indicate either the 
number or the duration of the pauses. 

Intelligence, beauty, and modesty are the principal charms of 
woman. (Remark g 2, last sentence.) 

The impartial distribution of posthumous fame or censure must 
have some effect on the most callous and unprincipled. 

He that shall endure unto the end the same shall be saved. (First 
of Remark g 8.) 

He who follows the pleasures of the world is in constant search 
of care and remorse. 

Joy, grief, love, admiration, devotion are all of them passions 
which are naturally musical. (Remark g 2, first portion.) 

The highest literature and art of every age embody its highest 
spiritual ideal of excellence. 

Silent and severe they sit those men of the old fearless time. 
(Remark h.) 

He who has never studied the consequences of human actions per- 
ceives, in the great concourse of mankind, only a multitude of beings 
consulting each his own peculiar interest. (Remark g 4 or 5.) 



RELATIVE CLAUSES. 57 

RULE VII. 
Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses. 

§ I. A comma is put before a relative clause, when 
it is explanatory of the antecedent, or presents an 
additional thought. 

§ II. But the point is omitted before a relative 
which restricts the general notion of the antecedent to 
a particular sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

si. 

1. Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. 

2. Study nature, whose laws and phenomena are all deeply interesting. 

3. Channing has set forth great and universal truths, that cannot perish. 

4. These were small states, in which every man felt himself to be important. 

5. The father of history was Herodotus, from whom we have an account of 

the Persian war. 

in. 

1. Every teacher must love a boy who is attentive and docile. 

2. Happy are the people whose history is the most wearisome to read. 

3. Urbanity often lends a grace to actions that are of themselves ungracious. 

4. Some men engage in labors in which they afterwards take no delight. 

5 It is barbarous to injure those from whom we have received a kindness. 

REMARKS. 

a. By comparing any of the examples m the first class with its 
corresponding one or any other in the second, it will at once be 
seen that they are essentially different as to the senses intended to 
be conveyed. In the former class, the clause at the beginning of the 
sentence, which contains the antecedent, is of a general character: 
that at the end — the relative clause — presents something addi- 
tional, or explanatory of what has been said. In the latter class, the 
antecedent clause lays down a proposition which is restrained or 
limited in its sense by the relative. 

b. If a relative clause which is explanatory of the antecedent be 
placed between the extremities of a sentence, a comma is required 
both after the antecedent word or phrase, and before that verb of 
which it is the nominative; as, " Slaves and savagss, who receive no 
education, are proverbially indolent." — See p. 64. 



58 THE COMMA. 

c. But, if the nominative is accompanied by a limiting relative 
clause, — or, to speak more accurately, if the subject is composed of 
an antecedent and a relative clause, — both points should be omitted; 
as, " The man who is faithfully attached to religion may be relied on 
with confidence.'' For, were a comma placed after either "man" 
or " religion," or after words corresponding to these in similar sen- 
tences, a separation would be made between parts, which, from their 
restrictive character, are obviously inseparable. — See p. 51, d, e. 

d. When, however, the antecedent consists of nouns or phrases 
between which commas are required, a comma should also be in- 
serted before the relative clause, though restrictive ; as, " There are 
many dreams, fictions, or theories, which men substitute for truth." 
Were the comma after " theories " omitted, the connection between 
" which " and the preceding noun would seem to be closer than that 
existing between the relative pronoun and the other particulars, to 
which it has an equal relation; and such an omission would, in 
many instances, tend to hinder a perception of the sense. 

e. A comma may also be put before the relative pronoun, even 
when restrictive, if it is immediately followed by a word or an ex- 
pression enclosed by commas, and especially if the antecedent is 
qualified by an adjective; as, "It was only a few discerning friends, 
who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of 
Kobertson's future eminence." The reasons offered for this mode 
of punctuating are, that the adjective has some effect to loosen the 
restraining power of the relative over the antecedent; and that 
the omission of the comma between the two portions of such a 
sentence — between "friends" and "who" in the present exam- 
ple — would draw the pronoun more closely to the clause which 
precedes it, than to that of which it forms a part. 

f. By some writers and printers, a comma is always put before 
the relative, though used restrictively, if separated by several words 
from its grammatical antecedent; as, "It is power of thought and 
utterance, which immortalizes the products of genius." — " He 
preaches sublimely, who lives a righteous and pious life." But 
we have little hesitation in saying, that the punctuation is in both 
examples erroneous. In the former, the antecedent " power " is 
accompanied with the inseparable modifying phrase, " of thought 
and utterance; " the sense being, not that power, but that the power 
of thought and utterance, immortalizes the products of genius. In 
the latter example, it will be seen that the proper construction is, 
" He who lives a righteous and pious life preaches sublimely; " and 



RELATIVE CLAUSES. 59 

that, "in this collocation of the words, the comma would he correctly- 
left out between the antecedent and the relative. If, therefore, a 
separation be made in the construction between worlds which are 
closely united in sense, as in the instances given, that separation, 
instead of being increased by the introduction of a point, should be 
made as little as possible by omitting it. 

g. To the preceding remark the only exception is when the 
relative might improperly be read so as to refer to a proximate 
term ; as, " Creeds too often carry, in their ruins, the seeds of that 
faith in the divine and eternal, without which our nobler nature 
starves and perishes." 

h. To prevent ambiguity, a comma is sometimes put before the 
words, of which, of whom, even when used restrictively, to dis- 
tinguish the preposition from that which connects two nouns, one 
of which governs the other; as, "Compassion is an emotion, of 
which you should never be ashamed." — "No thought can be just, 
of which good sense is not the groundwork." — "No thought, of 
which good sense is not the groundwork, can be just." The insertion 
of the point will distinguish phrases of this kind from such as occur 
in the following sentences: " Compassion is an emotion of grief for 
the sufferings of others." — " The actions of princes are like those 
great rivers, the courses of which every one beholds, but whose 
springs have been seen by few." It may be remarked too, that, 
when the relative pronoun does not immediately follow the clause 
containing the antecedent, the comma omitted before the relative 
is inserted between the two portions of the sentence, as after the 
word " rivers " in the last example. 

i. The principles stated in both divisions of the rule are appli 
cable to sentences in which an adverb is put for a relative pronoun ; 
as, " The philosophers took refuge in Persia, where [in which 
country] they soon became dispersed." — "Mark the majestic 
simplicity of those laws whereoy [by which] the operations of the 
universe are conducted." 

j. Sentences in which the relative pronoun may be supplied are 
subject to the same rules as those in which it is expressed; as, 
" Genius is not a single faculty of the mind, distinct from all the 
rest." — "Genius is not a faculty of the mind separate from all 
the rest." In both forms of the example, the relative pronoun 
with the verb — which is — is understood after the word "mind;" 
but in the former the comma is used, because the first clause 
makes perfect sense of itself, and the second is explanatory. In 



60 THE COMMA. 

the latter form, the comma is omitted, for the reason that both 
clauses are so blended as to be inseparable in sense ; the first being 
restrained or limited in its meaning by the second. The following 
sentence contains past participles, used in both an explanatory and 
a restrictive sense, and punctuated accordingly : " Poets are by no 
means wingless angels, fed with ambrosia plucked from Olympus, 
or manna rained down from heaven." 

h. When a present participle is put instead of a relative and a 
verb, the insertion or omission of the comma will also depend on 
the principle just stated ; as, " The path of mere power is that 
of the cannon-ball, destroying [which destroys] every thing in its 
course." — "There are moral principles slumbering in the souls of 
the most depraved." 

I. Sometimes, however, a restrictive clause of the kind mentioned 
in the two foregoing remarks should be preceded by a comma, when, 
its antecedent being removed at some distance from the relative pro- 
noun, the latter is in danger of being connected too closely with a 
nearer noun; as, "Commercial nations have an apathy to amuse- 
ment, distinct from mere gravity of disposition." A comma may also 
be inserted before and after a clause beginning with an adjective or a 
past participle, if introduced between the extremities of a sentence, 
in order to show the alliance of the nominative with its verb, or of 
one noun with another ; as, " A man, distinguished for his virtues and 
attainments, is commonly respected." 

m. When the ellipsis may be supplied with the adverb when, 
'involving in its signification a nominative or a relative and a verb, 
a comma should be inserted before two adjectives or participles, 
restrictive or unrestrictive, or an adjective or participle with words 
depending on it ; as, " Man, ignorant and uncivilized, is a ferocious 
savage." — " The death of Socrates, philosophizing with his friends, is 
the most pleasant that could be desired." 

n. When only the relative pi'onoun is understood, the antecedent 
should be left unpointed ; as, " The laws we reverence are our brave 
fathers' legacy; " that is, the laws which we reverence. 

o. Such as, when equivalent to a demonstrative and a relative 
pronoun, is subject to the second division of the rule; as, "There 
is no such partition in the spiritual world as you see in the mate- 
rial ; " that is, there is not that partition which you see. 

p. A semicolon is sometimes used before a relative pronoun, 
particularly when it refers to an antecedent in a remote clause. 
But this mode of punctuating will be best exhibited hereafter. 



RELATIVE CLAUSES. 61 

ORAL EXERCISES. 

State the principles in the seventh Rale (p. 57), and show how they may be 
applied to the sentences that follow .- — 

Avoid rudeness of manners, which must hurt the feelings of others. 
Every good man must love the country in which he was born. 
The child was much attached to Jane, who loved him dearly. 
Those who are wealthy have great influence over others. 
Virtue is that to which the man himself contributes. 
What is more wonderful than the human eye, that sees all around ? 
The subject should be held up in every light of which it is capable. 
Death is the season which brings our affections to the test. 
Turn not back from the good path on which you have entered. 
Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. 
Ambition is the germ from whicli all growth of nobleness proceeds. 
Christianity is a religion whose origin is unquestionably divine. 
He who reads in a proper spirit can scarcely read too much. 
War is a tremendous evil, to which many have unhappily resorted. 



Mention the reasons, given in the Remarlcs (pp. 57-60), for inserting or omitting 
commas in such sentences as the following : — 

Satan, whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellows, spake 

The eye, that sees all things, sees not itself. 

Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days. 

The credulity which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. 

He that is slow to anger is better and nobler than the mighty. 

Where is the philosopher, the man, who would thus live and die V 

He questioned me of the battles, sieges, fortunes, that I have passed. 

The large book, which I bought years ago, has not yet been read. 

No faculty lives within us which the soul can spare. 

Nothing is in vain that rouses the mind to thought and reflection. 

There is a craving for enjoyment, which cannot be destroyed in man 

William left the city of New York, where he was doing well. 

Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony. 

Adopt a plan of life founded on religion and virtue. 

A great mind gazeth on the sun, gloiying in its brightness. 

Genius addresses the consciousness existing in all men. 

Physical science, separate from morals, parts with its chief dignity. 

Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 

Sucii as are careless of themselves are seldom mindful of others. 



62 THE COMMA. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Punctuate, or leave unpointed, the following' sentences, as required by the pre- 
ceding Rule and Remarks (pp. 57-60) : — 

We should trace hi all events the wisdom and benevolence of God 
from whom descendeth every good and perfect gift. (Rule, § i.) 

We read, with a reverential love, of men devoting themselves to 
the interests of humanity. (Last of Remark Tc.) 

The lever which moves the world of mind is emphatically the 
printing-press. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark c.) 

Youth is introductory to manhood to which it is a state of 
preparation. (Rule, § i.) 

To the Father of lights in whom there is no darkness are we in- 
debted for all the blessings we enjoy. (Rule, § i. ; and Rem. b, n.) 

There was nothing in the mind of Jesus of which you have not 
the principle and the capacity in yourself. (Remark h.) 

Some countries are infested with bands of robbers who attack 
travellers in the open day. (Rule, § i.) 

Set at nought the grosser pleasures of sense whereof others are 
slaves. (Remark i, compared with h.) 

There is a philosophic spirit which is far more valuable than any 
limited acquirements of philosophy. (Rule, § n.) 

The entrance on a new course awakens new energies and powers 
which rapidly unfold into life and vigor. (Rule, § i.) 

Science and Poetry alike recognizing the order and the beauty of 
the universe are alike handmaids of Devotion. (Remark m.) 

The brightest part of thy life is nothing but a flower which 
withers almost as soon as it has blown. (Rule, § I.) 

Columbus was sent to the university of Padua where he acquired 
such knowledge as was then taught. (Remarks i, o.) 

Does the sentiment of patriotism reign in the common soldier who 
hues himself to be shot at for a few cents a day? (Rule, § i.) 

A government directing itself resolutely and steadily to the gene- 
ral good becomes a minister of virtue. (Remark m.) 

May we be living flowers in those everlasting gardens of the Lord 
where angels and seraphs are the guardians ! (Remarks i and g.) 

What are the moral influences of poverty its influences on charac- 
ter which deserve our chief attention? (Remark d.) 

The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid whose 
works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathematicians in 
modern times. (Rule, § i.) 



RELATIVE CLAUSES. 63 

Go not from the world with the joyless consciousness of those to 
whom the fountains of its purest bliss have been sealed. (Rule, § H.) 

You may treat life as a problem which has to be wrought out to 
a successful result. (Rule, § i.) 

There is no charm in the female sex which can supply the place 
of virtue. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark /.) 

Aid in reforming those social abuses the existence of which casts 
such a gloom and blight on the happiness of all. (Last of Rem. h.) 

The benefit arising to us from an enlarged understanding cannot 
well be overrated. (Last of Remark k.) 

The moral character is modified in some degree by the tastes and 
habits of feeling imbibed from the situation in which men are 
placed. (Remark j ; and Rule, § n.) 

A good reader will often pause where no grammarian would insert 
a point; and, on the other hand, he will sometimes neglect the 
commas he finds inserted by the writer. (Remarks i and n.) 

The memory of the eyes that hung over a man in infancy and 
childhood will haunt him through all his after-life. (Rule, § n.; and 
Remark c.) 

Macpherson who has given us some highly original images spoils 
half his work by forgetting that his bard was a Gaul. (Rule, § I. ; 
and Remark b.) 

The superior wisdom of the present day consists in the better 
knowledge derived from experience of the limits of our faculties. 
(Remark I, last portion.) 

Antiquity would have raised altars to that vast and mighty genius 
who, for the advantage of human kind, could tame the rage of thunder 
and of despotism. (Remark e.) 

He only is filled Avith the true spirit of devotion who recognizes, 
m the outward forms of beauty, the mind of Him who has chosen 
this mode of intercourse with his trustful and adoring offspring. 
(Remark /; and Rule, § n.) 

A peace worth all the specious goods which this world has at its 
disposal will ever be found in a simple and contented mind, in an 
affectionate heart, and in a pure and honorable life. (Last of Re- 
mark I; and Rule, § n.) 

That the memories of those most justly venerable and dear should 
throng around us with a new vitality, as life's evening draws on, is 
scarcely reconcilable with the supposition, that the spirit of which 
such remembrances are the most precious possession is itself on the 
point of expiring for ever. (Rem.,/, lines 8-11; and h, first portion.) 



64 THE COMMA. 

eule vm. 

Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses. 

Expressions of a parenthetical or intermediate na- 
ture are separated from the context by commas. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a very little part of the grand 

machine of the universe. 

2. Books, regarded merely as a gratification, are worth more than all the 

luxuries on earth. 

3. The man of refinement and sensibility finds himself, as it were, in accord- 

ance with universal nature. 

4. A man of more than ordinary intellectual vigor may, for want of the faculty 

of expression, be a cipher in society. 

REMARKS. 

a. In punctuation there is perhaps no rule so well adapted as thi.s 
for showing the construction and sense of passages, and yet none 
seems to be less understood or observed by writers and printers. 
To prevent, therefore, any mistake, on the part of the pupil, as to 
the meaning of a parenthetical phrase or clause, and to enable him 
to insert the right points by distinguishing it with some degree of 
accuracy from the parenthesis, from which it derives its name, we 
may have to anticipate a little what will be laid down and illus- 
trated in the next chapter. 

6. A parenthesis and a parenthetical expression are alike in this 
respect, that each is a sentence, or a part of a sentence, enclosed 
within another. But the difference between these two kinds of inter- 
mediate sentences or phrases is, that parentheses are so used as to 
be susceptible of omission, without affecting either the sense or the 
construction of the main passage; while parenthetical expressions 
cannot be omitted, without diminishing the force or changing the 
import of that by which they are preceded and followed. The 
following examples will illustrate the difference spoken of, and at 
the same time exhibit the proper modes of punctuation : — 

1. It is probable that every planet (as the Creator has made nothing in vain) 

is inhabited. 

2. The benevolent and pious man, even when persecuted, is, on the whole, a 

happy man. 



PARENTHETIC AL EXPRESSIONS. 65 

The first of these sentences exemplifies the parenthesis, with its 
appiopriate marks; the second, such expressions as are merely 
parenthetical or intermediate. In the former sentence, the main 
sentiment would be perfect, both as to its sense and the construction 
of the language, if the intermediate clause were thrown out from 
its present place ; in the latter, the omission of the phrases between 
the commas — "even when persecuted," and "on the whole" — 
would sensibly affect the meaning intended to be conveyed. For 
the sake of distinction and convenience, this easy kind of paren- 
thesis loses the more generic name, and is commonly termed a 
parenthetical expression. 

c. Many short expressions which were formerly enclosed within 
marks of parenthesis, and which, on account of their construction 
differing from that of the other portions of the sentence, may pro- 
perly be called parentheses, are now usually pointed off by commas ; 
as, " Study, I beseech you, to store your minds with the exquisite 
learning of former ages." — " ' Thirst for glory,' says a great writer, 
' is often founded on ambition and vanity.' " As these short ex- 
pressions interfere but slightly with the unity of thought conveyed 
in the context, commas are preferable to the parenthetical marks. 

d. Many writers are accustomed to omit the comma, in all cases, 
after a conjunction; but it is evident, that, when a word of this or 
any other part of speech is divided by a phrase or clause from the 
portion of the sentence to which it belongs, such intervening ex- 
pression should have a comma before as well as after it, as in the 
following example : " Agamemnon still lives before us in the ' tale 
of Troy divine ; ' but, were not his name embalmed in that imperish- 
able song, there would not now be a wreck of it." 

I e. Short phrases of a parenthetical kind, when closely united in 
sense to the context, and particularly when introduced into what is 
itself parenthetical, should be left unpointed ; as, " Poesy can portray 
vnth much energy the excesses of the passions." This is further 
exemplified in the intermediate clause of the remark just made, — 
" when closely united in sense to the context;" in which the Itali- 
cized words partake somewhat of the nature of a parenthetic phrase, 
but are better read in union with the words that precede and follow 
them. 

f. Conjunctions, adverbs or adverbial phrases, words or expres 
sions in a direct address, and absolute or other phrases, are some- 
times used parenthetically ; but, occurring as they do in a variety of 
ways, their punctuation will be best explained under different rules. 
5 



66 THE COMMA. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

Assign the reason, as given in the eighth Rule, for the insertion of commas in 
the following sentences : — 

A contract, to be valid, must be for some legal object or purpose. 

Every passion, however base or unworthy, is eloquent. 

Some men are refined, like gold, in the furnace of affliction. 

It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world. 

Nature, through all her works, delights in variety. 

The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 

A spiritual nature, to grow in power, demands spiritual liberty. 

The ocean, in its mighty heavings, makes you serious. 

Dismiss, as soon as may be, all angry and wrathful thoughts. 

But, if education cannot do every thing, it can do much. 

Let us send light and joy, if we can, to every one around us. 

Man, in his highest mood of thought, aspires to God. 

There, where knowledge ceases, faith should strongest prove. 

Take your lot, as it is assigned you, without murmuring or complaint. 

Christianity, in the highest sense, is the religion of sorrow. 



Why, according to the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 64, 65), are the parenthetical 
expressions in the following sentences pointed or unpointed ? — 

Thou knowest, come what may, that the light of truth cannot be 
put out. 

Of nothing may we be more sure than this, that, if we cannot 
sanctify our present lot, we could sanctify no other. 

The travellers set out early, and, before the close of the day, 
arrived at the destined place. 

But, in the formation of character, we know that man is to lay its 
foundations for himself. 

Yet, after leaving school, Cowper threw away the next twenty or 
thirty years of his life almost in doing nothing. 

We can sometimes trace extraordinary skill in the liberal arts to 
the existence of a quarry of fine marble. 

Civilization, which on the whole has never gone backward, is 
new-shaped and modified by each particular people. 

The greatest of all human benefits, that at least without which no 
other benefits can be truly enjoyed, is independence. 

Burke and Paine were incarnations of the spirits whose conflict 
has for asres divided the world. 



PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. 67 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Punctuate the parenthetical expressions, except those to which Remark e, p. 65, 
will apply : — 

A single hour in the day steadily given to the study of an interest- 
ing subject brings unexpected accumulations of knowledge. (Rule.) 

Benevolence is on whatever side we may contemplate the subject 
a godlike virtue. (Rule.) 

True it is, that were we cast from birth into solitude we should 
grow up in brutal ignorance. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

Excellence is in any position almost the infallible result of the 
determination to excel. (Rule.) 

" The virtuous man " it has been beautifully said " proceeds with- 
out constraint in the path of his duty." (Remarks c, e.) 

In Dante for the first time in an uninspired bard the dawn of a 
spiritual day breaks upon us. (Rule.) 

A people should honor and cultivate as unspeakably useful that 
literature which calls forth the highest faculties. (Rule.) 

Simple truths when simply explained are more easily compre- 
hended I believe than is commonly supposed. (Rule, and Remark c.) 

I would stamp God's name and not Satan's upon every innocent 
pleasure. (Rule.) 

Fanaticism in its ill sense is that which makes a man blind to 
perceive the falseness of an error. (Rule.) 

Cursed be the verse how well soe'er it flow 

That tends to make one worthy man my foe. (Rule.) 

1 maintain, that as knowledge extends the range of all imagery 
is enlarged; and what is far more important that the conception 
kindles by the contemplation of higher objects. (Remarks c, d.) 

The love of the beautiful and true like the dewdrop in the heart of 
the crystal remains for ever clear and liquid in the inmost shrine 
of man's being. (Rule, and Remark e.) 

Numerous instances there have been as every reader knows of 
those who have thrown down every obstacle in the way of their 
mental elevation. (Remark c.) 

V^ithout fairness of mind which is only another phrase for dis- 
interested love of truth great native powers of understanding are 
perverted. (Rule.) 

We cannot see an individual expire though a stranger or an 
enemy without being prompted by compassion to lend him every 
assistance in our power. (Rule, and Remark e.) 



68 THE COMMA. 

RULE IX. 
Vocative Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

A word or an expression, denoting a person or an 
object addressed, is separated by a comma from the 
rest of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Antonio, light my lamp within my chamber. 

2. Take these two savages to your care, Charon. 

3. Boast not, my dear friends, of to-morrow. 

REMARKS. 

a. When the terms or expressions in a direct address indicate 
awe, wonder, or any other strong emotion, it is better to use after 
them the note of exclamation: as, " My sister! my sister! " 

b. For the punctuation of the personal pronoun in a vocative 
expression, see page 42, Remark j. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 
Assign the reason for the insertion of commas in the following sentences: — 
Sir, I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your long-expected letter. 
I am obliged to you, ladies, for the kindness you have shown. 
Come hither, Moor. — What would you, Desdemona? 
From childhood, seignior, you have been my protector. 
Idle time, John, is the most ruinous thing in the world. 
Come, companion of my toils, let us take fresh courage. 
All hope abandon, ye who enter here. — I am, dear madam, yours. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Punctuate these sentences in accordance with the above Rule t — 
Continue my dear James to make virtue your principal study. 
Acquire my daughters the habit of doing every thing well. 
Descend from heaven Urania. — You weep good Ethelbert. 
Sir the declaration will inspire the people with increased courage. 
This my lords is a perilous and tremendous moment. 
Verres what have you to advance against this charge ? 
Morning is the best time to study my beloved children. 
Thou who despisest the outward forms 'lose not the inward spirit. 



PARTICIPIAL AND ABSOLUTE PHRASES. 69 

KULE X. 
Adjectival^ Participial, and Absolute Phrases. 

Adjectival, participial, and absolute phrases are each 
separated by a comma from the remainder of the sen- 
tence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Awkward in his person, James was ill qualified to command respect. 

2. Cradled in the camp, Napoleon was the darling of his army. 

3. Having approved of the plan, the king put it into execution. 

4. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune 

5. To speak candidly, I do not understand the subject. 

6. Generally speaking, the conduct of that man is honorable. 

EEMAEK8. 

a. The first three examples show the punctuation of adjectival 
and participial phrases, each of these being separated by a comma 
from the clause which follows, and with which it is associated. The 
next three severally exhibit that of phrases containing the nomina- 
tive, the infinitive, and the participle absolute; so called because 
they are grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence in 
which they occur. 

b. The phrase which begins the following sentence may be treated 
as an example of the imperative absolute, and should therefore be 
pointed as the other independent phrases: " Take him for all in all, 
I shall not look upon his like again." 

c. The nominative absolute when used p]eonastically, or the 
expression to which it belongs, is also divided by a comma from 
what follows it; as, " The captain, I hope he will not act thus." — 
" He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." 

d. Though followed by a participle, a nominative, if it be the sub- 
ject of a verb, is not absolute or independent. In this construction, a 
comma should be inserted botli before and after the participial phrase ; 
as, " He, being dead, yet speaketh." — See p. 50, c. 

e. All the phrases referred to, when used intermediately or paren- 
thetically, are enclosed by commas ; a^, " James, awkward in his 
person, was ill qualified to command respect." — See p. 64. 

f. The objective absolute or independent is subject to the same 
kind of punctuation ; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never 
reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns." 



70 . THE COMMA. 

g. If placed at the end of the sentence, such phrases should each 
be preceded by a comma ; as, " His conduct is honorable, generally 
speaking." But elegance or perspicuity of style will seldom permit 
this change of position in phrases used independently. 

h. In respect, however, to those adjectival and participial phrases 
before which a relative pronoun, in its restrictive sense, is under- 
stood, the comma should be omitted. — See p. 59, j, second example ; 
and p. 60, h, last example. 

i. The absolute phrases, to proceed, to conclude, &c, when placed 
at the beginning of a paragraph, to the whole of which they refer, 
are better pointed with a colon. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

Recite the tenth Rule, which lays down the principle for inserting commas in the 
following and similar sentences : — 

Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. — He being dead, we shall live. 

Speaking in round numbers, he made fifty thousand dollars. 

Crowded in filth, the poor cease to respect one another. 

To confess the truth, I was greatly to blame for my indiscretion. 

We being exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. 

Partial in his affections, he was ill fitted to acquire general love. 

H. Tooke having taken orders, he was refused admission to the bar. 

The sun having risen, we departed on our journey. 

His father being dead, the prince succeeded to the throne. 

Raising his head from the earth, man looks before and after. 

Incensed with indignation, Satan stood unterrified. 



How do the Remarks apply to the punctuation of the following sentences?— 
Regard him as you may, I think that he is a dangerous man. 
Timothy Taylor, may he always thus act and speak ! 
We, being exceedingly tossed, lightened the ship. 
The prince, his father being dead, succeeded to the throne. 
This is, to say nothing worse, highly reprehensible. 
His conduct, generally speaking, is highly honorable. 
We set out in the journey of life, full of spirit and high in hope. 
The lady was agreeable, being formed with the qualities that we love. 
We may smile at misfortune, peace of mind being secured. 
Then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst. 
I never sought an opportunity of meeting him, to tell you the truth. 
Let them attend, all they who feel interested in this great subject. 



PARTICIPIAL AND ABSOLUTE PHRASES. 71 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Let the following sentences be pointed according to Rule X. or the Remarks : — 

Full of desire to answer all demands the truly benevolent do not 
think it troublesome to aid the cause of the wretched. (Rule.) 

There are to confess the truth few who are fully qualified for the 
high office of governing their fellows. (Remark e.) 

Employed in little things an elevated genius appears like the sun 
in his evening declination. (Rule.) 

Home Tooke having taken orders was refused admission to the 
bar. (Remark d.) 

Having the inward life men cannot conceal it; having divine 
treasures they will not hoard them. (Rule.) 

A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than a state 
of pleasure. ( Remark e. ) 

Virtue being abandoned we become terrified with imaginary 
evils. (Rule.) 

Those who are truly my friends let them come to my assistance. 
(Remark c.) 

To supply this deficiency the Creator endowed him with nobler 
qualities of intellect. (Rule.) 

Physicians the disease once discovered think the cure half 
wrought. (Remark e.) 

Surpassing the boast of the too-confident Roman Napoleon but 
stamped on the earth, and a creation of enchantment arose. (Rule.) 

This gentleman take him for all in all possessed a greater variety 
of knowledge than any man I ever knew. (Remarks b, e.) 

Overwhelmed with shame and remorse the soul feels itself shut 
out from heaven. (Rule.) 

God, from the mount of Sinai, whose grey top 
Shall tremhle he descending will himself 
Ordain their laws. (Remark e.) 

To take some men at then- word you would suppose they believed 
that only one class hi society was entitled to consideration. (Rule.) 

Ores are called native or natural compounds being produced De- 
nature. (Remark g.) 

I being in the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's 
brother. (Rule.) 

There is no single period of history, which all things being taken 
into consid eration will allow us to be indifferent to the progress of 
mankind. (Remark e.) 



72 THE COMMA. 

RULE XL 

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases. 
Adverbs or adverbial phrases, when used as con- 
nectives, or when they modify net single words, but 
clauses or sentences, are each followed by a comma ; 
and, if used intermediately, they admit a comma before 
as well as after them. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Why, these are testimonies of what the unfriended may do. 

2. I proceed, thirdly, to point out the proper state of our temper. 

3. On the other hand, let not the imagination be ungovernable. 

4. Punctuality is, no doubt, a quality of high importance. 

5. The most vigorous thinkers and writers are, in fact, self-taught. 

REMARKS. 

a. The following words, with others of a similar kind, are pointed 
in accordance with the rule : — Again, further, moreover, once more, 
as yet, yea, nay, why, well, first, secondly, finally, accordingly, con- 
sequently, unquestionably, indisputably, namely, at present, in truth, 
in short, in fine, in general, in particular, in the meantime, in the next 
place, in all probability, of late, of course, above all, nevertheless, 
doubtless, without doubt, true (used for indeed), that is (for namely), 
on the one hand, on the contrary, for the most part, now and then. 

b. When any of the adverbs or adverbial phrases in the preceding 
list, or others of a like character, are used to qualify single words, 
the commas should be omitted ; as, " The lecture was again delivered." 
— " Some men are in the highest degree mystical." 

c. Besides the adverbs and adverbial expressions which qualify 
single words, many of those relating to the whole clause or sentence 
in which they occur are sometimes written and printed without com- 
mas; as, " Perhaps I will give it." — "He was formerly a wealthy 
citizen." The omission of the point is recommended wherever the 
adverb readily coalesces with the context, as it does in the examples 
just given. 

d. If, however, there is any harshness in the construction or the 
collocation, the adverbial word or expression may be set off by 
commas ; as, " Poverty, perhaps, has been the most fertile source 
of literary crimes " 



ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 73 

e. The insertion or the omission of commas in respect to such 
words as hence, also, seems, in general practice, to be a matter of 
taste or caprice. But, except when required by peculiar reasons, 
the points are better omitted; for, in general, these adverbs unite 
very readily with the context ; as, " Hence have arisen dangerous 
factions." — " The earth is also clothed with verdure." 

f. Here and there, when used antithetically before an adjective 
or a noun, and placed at the beginning of a clause or sentence, 
should be each followed by a comma; as, " Here, every thing is in 
stir and fluctuation: there, all is serene and orderly." Commonly, 
however, these words do not require to be punctuated. 

g. When two intermediate adverbs, not qualifying any particular 
word, come together, that which coalesces least with the other por- 
tions of the sentence should alone have a comma both before and 
after it; as, " There were, surely, always pretenders in science." 

h. Many words ranked as adverbs are sometimes employed con- 
junctively, and require a different treatment in their punctuation. 
When used as conjunctions, however, now, then, too, indeed, are divided 
by commas from the context ; but when as adverbs, qualifying the 
words with which they are associated, the separation should not be 
made. This distinction will be seen from the following examples : — 

1. However. — We must, however, pay some deference to the opinions ot 
the wise, however much they are contrary to our own. 

2. Now. — I have now shown the consistency of my principles ; and, now, 
what is the fair and ohvious conclusion? 

3. Then. — On these facts, then, I then rested my argument, and after- 
wards made a few general observations on the subject. 

4- Too. — I found, too, a theatre at Alexandria, and another at Cairo ; but 
he who would enjoy the representations must not be too particular. 

6. Indeed. — The young man was indeed culpable in that act, though, 
indeed, he conducted himself very well in other respects. 

When placed at the end of a sentence or a clause, the conjunction 
too must not be separated from the context by a comma; as, "I 
would that they had changed voices too." 

i. The particle therefore, which is used sometimes as an adverb, 
and sometimes as a conjunction, may be set off by commas when it 
is of a parenthetical nature, or obstructs the flow of the composition, 
and left unpointed when it coalesces easily with the other parts of 
the sentence ; as, " Music has charms, and therefore ought to be 
admired: if, therefore, you have an opportunity of learning that 
delightful art, study it with avidity." 



74 THE COMMA. 

j. Besides, when used as a preposition, should not be punctuated; 
but, when occurring as an adverb or a conjunction, a comma is 
required after, and, if occurring intermediately, also one before it; 
as, " Besides him, there was another man who acted in the same 
manner : there were present, besides, several ladies, who seemed to 
give their approbation." The same remark is applicable to the word 
notwithstanding. 

k. Though the examples in Remarks h, i, j, are not to be regarded 
as models of composition, they probably illustrate the use of the 
comma, by the juxtaposition of the particles, much better than if these 
were put separately in sentences less liable to critical objection. 

I. Used adverbially, yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, &c, are, like the 
adverbs of time, now, then (Remark h), not separated by points from 
the words with which they are connected; as, "John went yesterday 
to Cincinnati." 

m. All adverbial words or phrases, if followed by a parenthetical 
expression, must, according to p. 64, have a comma after them ; but, 
if finishing a sentence or a clause, they should have that point which 
is required by their position. 

n. When an adverbial word or phrase comes between two phrases 
or clauses, it must be separated by a comma only from that expres- 
sion which it does not qualify; as, " He was saved, for a time at least, 
from a relapse." — " Though Nature has given to all her children 
some conceptions of immortality, still her information is far from 
proving satisfactory." 

OKAL EXEE9CISES. 
Show how the punctuation in these sentences corresponds to Rule XI. : — 
Lastly, let me repeat what I stated at the beginning of my lecture. 
Such, undoubtedly, is the characteristic of genuine virtue. 
On the contrary, I believe that truth is the great inspirer. 
There is, now and then, a youth of more than youthful powers. 
He made the most, mentally, of whatever came in his way. 
Undoubtedly, the statement he has made is not correct. 
There are many ends, doubtless, for which each thing exists. 
But, lastly, let us examine the truth of these arguments. 
In fact, modern civilization is a corrupted Christianity. 
Such, in general, is the humiliating aspect of the tomb. 
Accordingly, the chronicles of the middle ages teem with crimes. 
The national life, in short, is to a certain extent diseased. 
Well, proceed with the speech which you have so well begun. 



ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 75 

According to Remarlis on pages 72-74, assign reasons for the punctuation of the 
adverbial or conjunctive words and phrases which occur in the following 
sentences, or for the amission of commas: — 

At present, the individual is often crushed by circumstances. 

True, the rooms of the poor are not lined with works of art 

Let us further consider the arguments on this subject. 

My high-blown pride at length broke under me. 

How inconceivably thin and tender are the threads of a spider I 

Let us, in the first place, observe the inauimate world. 

That is, there is a true way of expressing truth. 

Well, I call conversation the sweet interchange of thought. 

I do not well know why I should think of it in any other respect 

Ay, love the good and the beautiful. — Aye love the good, &c. 

He first went to New York, and afterwards to Philadelphia. 

Attend, first, to the literal sense ; and, secondly, to the metaphorical. 

Probably there are few who ever accomplish as much as they expected. 

Few, probably, ever accomplish as much as they expected. 

Why do you trust your character to be evolved by accident? 

If I cannot perform my promise, why, I will regret having made it 

Hence all human laws are more or less imperfect. 

Here also is the distinction between faith and mere assent. 

I am inclined, however, to believe this to be a mistaken opinion. 

However great Napoleon was as a general, he was not a good man. 

Now, feudalism is the embodiment of Satanic pride. 

Now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as also I am known. 

It is, then, a mark of wisdom to five virtuously and devoutly. 

Have not you, too, gone about the earth like an evil genius ? 

We look at all things too exclusively from our own point of view. 

If she trust the stars above, they can prove treacherous too. 

True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in mere speech. 

Pi*ofessors Bentley and Porson were scholars indeed. 

Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good. 

Therefore is our civilization not an unmixed good. 

A certain degree of moral culture, therefore, must be presupposed. 

A certain degree of moral culture must therefore be presupposed. 

Besides this, it may be of the greatest advantage to you in business. 

It may, besides, be of the greatest advantage to you in business. 

They, notwithstanding, had much love to spare. 

A man may be rich, notwithstanding pecuniary losses. 

We shall perhaps leave the city to-morrow morning. 

Vet. fair as thou art, thou shunnest to expose thyself to the public. 



76 THE COMMA. 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Insert commas only where required by Rule XL and Remarks (pp. 72-74) : — 

Hence the organs of sense are probably in a state of the greatest 
sensibility in an early period of life. (Remarks e, c.) 

Shakspeare was the most brilliant example unquestionably of a 
triumph over the defects of education. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

The children of our cottagers too appear to derive peculiar plea- 
sure from the soft breath of spring. (Remark h 4.) 

As yet science has hardly penetrated beneath the surface of 
aature. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

Characters endowed with great excellences will unfortunately 
often stand in need of great allowances. (Remark g.) 

Do we in a word reduce the whole of human duty to a bald and 
punctilious discharge of worldly business? (Rule.) 

However much he was persecuted, he loved his persecutors not 
the less. (Remarks b, h 1.) 

The happiness of the dead however is affected by none of these 
considerations. (Remark h 1.) 

First men of uncommon moral endowments may be expected to 
be men of uncommon intellectual powers. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

If therefore you find that you have a hasty temper, watch it nar- 
rowly. (Remark i.) 

The Greeks were great reasoners ; and their language accordingly 
abounds in connectives. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

This was the object to which the meeting first directed its atten- 
tion. (Remark b.) 

His prudent conduct may heal the difference ; nay may prevent 
any misunderstanding in future. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

Having now removed the objections made to our conduct, I shall 
take up very little more of your lordships' time. (Remarks &, h 2.) 

There was great scarcity of corn, and consequently dearth of all 
other victuals. (Rule, and Remarks a, d.) 

Every thing that grows is a world probably of uncounted myriads 
of beings. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

Sooner or later insulted virtue avenges itself on states, as well as 
on private men. (Rule.) 

The author therefore commences his undertaking by an analysis 
of names. ( Remark i. ) 

Without being rash on the one hand or fearful on the other we 
shall find all things working together for good. (Remark 7i.) 



ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 77 

Christ stands immeasurably in advance of the moral attainments 
of the world. (Remark b.) 

And hence perhaps it is that Solomon calls the fear of the Lord 
the beginning of wisdom. (Remark g.) 

The lateral force of human action that is the influence of con- 
temporaries, is great. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

Meanwhile we do not believe in any infalhble specific, in any 
sudden and unusual remedy. (Rule.) 

But yesterday the word of Caesar might have stood against the 
world. (Remark I.) 

Sometimes doubts and apprehensions will naunt the mind in its 
searchings for truth. (Rule.) 

But on the other hand do not suppose that poverty is altogether a 
waste and howling wilderness. (Rule, and Remark c.) 

There is undoubtedly very often more happiness in the hut than 
in the palace. (Rule, and Remark g.) 

Nature has indeed given us a soil which yields bounteously to the 
hand of industry. But what are lands, &c. (Remark h 5.) 

Society must of course receive beauty into its character and 
feehng. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

Let us contemplate then this connection, which binds the pro- 
sperity of others to our own. (Remark h 3.) 

Still a great and fruitful idea dimly pervades the eccentric specu- 
lations of Fourier. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

We should look on character acquired here as the condition of 
happiness hereafter. (Remark c, and last of/.) 

At present innumerable prejudices obstruct a complete extrac- 
tion of the mental and moral wealth latent in society. (Rule, and 
Remark a. ) 

Did I not see other and holier influences than the sword working 
out the regeneration of our race, I should indeed despair. (Remarks 
c, h 5.) 

Again perfection requires that each quality should be without 
debasing alloy. Lastly perfection requires that all the graces be 
expanded to an unlimited degree. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

De Foe soon however relinquished every thing else for literature 
and politics ; for which indeed his temper and talents adapted him 
much better than for business. (Remarks h 1, 5.) 

Now how does capital punishment operate ? Why it cuts off the 
offender from all the chance of reformation. (Remarks h 2 and b ; 
Rule, and Remark a.) 



78 THE COMMA. 

RULE XII. 

Phrases at the End of Sentences or Clauses. 

§ I. When a phrase beginning with a preposition, 
an adverb, or a conjunction, relates to or modifies a 
preceding portion of the sentence, a comma is unneces- 
sary, if the parts are closely connected in sense. 

§ II. But the point must be inserted when its omis- 
sion would occasion ambiguity, or when the phrase 
begins with a particle obstructing the connection which 
subsists between the different portions of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

§1. 

1. For that agency he applied without a recommendation. 

2. Cultivate your intellectual powers by habits of study and reflection. 

3. The idea is very happily applied under one of its forms. 

§H. 

1. He applied for that agency, without a recommendation 

2. Cultivate your intellectual powers, especially by habits of study, &c 
8. The idea is very happily applied, at least under one of its forms. 

EEMAKKS. 

a. In the first three examples, the phrases beginning with the 
prepositions "without," "by," "under," are closely connected with 
both portions of the sentence in which they severally occur, and 
therefore should not be preceded by a comma. 

b. If, in the first example of the second class, the comma were 
omitted before the preposition "without," the sentence might be 
wrongly understood to mean, that a person applied for an agency, 
without its having any recommendation in its favor. Of the next 
example, if written without the comma before the adverb " espe- 
cially," the meaning might be, that, by habits of study and reflection, 
you should cultivate particularly your intellectual powers, that is, 
in preference to others ; but this is not the sense. In both of these 
sentences, the insertion of the comma, as above, leads obviously to 
the true signification. In the last example, the sense is brought out 
more clearly by inserting a comma before the modifying wqrds " at 



FINAL PHRASES. 79 

least," because they belong rather to the phrase than to the whole 
clause, and obstruct the connection between " applied n and " under 
one of its forms." 

c. When the use of a word qualifying the phrase interrupts but 
slightly the connection between two parts of a sentence, the comma 
is better omitted. Thus, though susceptible of being pointed, the 
following sentences, where the final phrases are severally modified 
by the words either, even, may be written without the comma: " A 
good man will be happy either in this world or the next." — " The 
knowledge of nature cannot be exhausted even by the wisest." 

d. But, if a final phrase conveys an additional thought, or is 
preceded by another phrase, with which it does not readily unite, 
the comma should be inserted; as, "A strong idea of religion has 
generally prevailed, even among the most uncultivated savages." — 
" The ode was frequently sung at his request, either in the church or 
at some occasional meeting of the choir." 

e. The rule is applicable to a sentence ending with two phrases, 
each beginning with a particle, which may be taken either separately 
or as a compound phrase ; the last or both referring to some portion 
of what precedes. 

f. A phrase, at the end of a clause or sentence, of an antithetical 
character, is preceded by a comma; as, " Man's true destination is 
not perfection, but the unceasing perfecting of his nature." — See 
Eule V., p. 45. 

g. No point is required before a final phrase beginning with but, 
in the sense of except; as, " None are poor but the mean in mind." 

h. When a phrase begins with a verb in the infinitive mood, and 
its preposition signifies in order to, it should not be preceded by a 
comma; as, " We do not pray to God to instruct him." Unless where 
the omission of the point would too closely unite the latter portion 
of the clause with the phrase ; as, " Our minds must go out into the 
infinite and immortal regions, to Jind sufficiency and satisfaction for 
the present hour." 

i. If the words in order are expressed before the infinitive, the 
phrase is usually preceded by a comma; as, "We should be vir- 
tuous and devout, in order to refine and elevate our nature." 

j. Final phrases, referring to time, measure, or distance, whether 
they begin with a preposition or are elliptical, should not be preceded 
by any point; as, " Byron was born on Jan. 22, 1788, and died April 
19, 1824." — "The mason built the wall a hundred feet high." — 
" Some men can easily walk four miles an hour." 



80 THE COMMA. 

h. But when the last phrase consists of a date, and the preceding 
one ends with a noun, it is better to distinguish the phrases by a 
comma, unless they are connected by means of a preposition ; as, 
"The mills were destroyed by fire, Sept. 28, 1854." — "Peace was 
concluded between England and France in February, 1763." 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

State why, in conformity with Rule XII. (p. 78), commas are used in some of 
these sentences, and omitted in others : — 

He was a man of extraordinary powers, both of mind and body. 
The fertile earth is fragrant after soft showers. 
Take heed not to place thyself in the power of temptation. 
View the path you are entering on, with an enlightened mind. 
The grandeur of Kome has vanished like a spectre in the night. 
Poisons are sweet in the moral world, as truly as in the natural. 
Do thy best to pluck this crawling serpent from my breast. 
Poverty of mind is often concealed under the garb of splendor. 
Repentance is not a single act, but a habit of virtue. 
Truth is not hidden from us by an impenetrable veil. 
All great things are so, only by the assemblage of small things. 
Call off the thoughts when running upon disagreeable objects. 
Keep an inventory of your friends, rather than of your goods. 



Mention why, in accordance with the above Remarks, commas are inserted or 
omitted in the following sentences : — 

Thou art a soldier even to Cato's wishes. 

I knew the facts of the case even when I wrote to you. 

Judge not either capriciously or by a factitious standard. 

He was a Columbus in a brave heart, if not in achievement. 

Virtue is not the creature of will, but necessary and immutable. 

Our best works are fractions, not complete and rounded unities. 

Nothing remained but to throw himself on the mercy of Heaven. 

Let me find a charter in your voice to assist my simpleness. 

He left the room to see whether all was safe. 

Cultivate the art of reading, in order to read well. 

Patrick Kelly left Ireland seventeen years ago. 

You will be sure to find me in the school at nine o'clock, a.m. 

Adam Smith was bom in Scotland, 1723, and died 1790. 

The lyre was invented 1004 b.c. ; and paper in China, 105 B.C. 



FINAL PHRASES. 81 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

(n agreement with the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 78-80), let commas be inserted 
or omitted in the following sentences: — 

A year is much in human life particularly to the very young and 
very old. (Rule, § n.) 

Follow the perfections of your enemies rather than the errors of 
your friends. (Eule, § n. ; and Remark jf.) 

The love of praise should be preserved under proper subordina- 
tion to the principle of duty. (Rule, § i.) 

The soul becomes great by the habitual contemplation of great 
objects (Rule, § i.) 

Do not employ your wit either to insult or to offend your asso- 
ciates. (Remark c.) 

I often come to this quiet place to breathe the airs that ruffle thy 
face. (First of Remark h.) 

A true philosopher is careful to preserve an evenness of mind 
both in prosperity and adversity. (Rule, § u.) 

How superior is the man of forbearance and gentleness to every 
other man in the collisions of society! (Rule, § 11.) 

Christianity represents physical evil as the direct appointment of 
God's iove. (Rule, § i.) 

The active mind of man seldom or never rests satisfied with its 
present condition how prosperous soever. (Rule, § n.) 

The saint owes much of the grace and elegance of his spirit to 
the influences of sorrow in some form. (Rule, § i.) 

A great mind is formed by a few great ideas not by an infinity of 
loose details. (Rule, both sections; and Remarks e, f.) 

The first indications of genius disclose themselves at a very early 
period. (Rule, § i.) 

The knowledge of any one truth acts as an introducer and inter- 
prefer between us and all its kindred truths. (Rule, § i.) 

We cannot bid farewell to so large a portion of human history 
without deep and earnest thought. (Rule, § n.) 

Herbert always attracted friends and strangers by the elegance 
and benignity of his manners. (Rule, § i.) 

Law should not be the rich man's luxury but the poor man's 
remedy. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark f.) 

There are Christians who defer to some perpetual and concurrent 
authority either in a living person or in a body of persons. (Rule, 
4 n.; and Remark d.) 



82 THE COMMA. 

The intellectual powers may be exercised to the neglect and 
stifling of the moral and spiritual. (Eule, § n.) 

Half of what passes among men for talent is nothing but strong 
health. (Rule, § i. ; and Remark g.) 

Sensible men show their good sense by saying much in a few 
words. (Rule, § i.) 

Shake not the credit of others in endeavoring to establish your 
own. (Rule, § 11.) 

Ariosto, the eminent Italian poet, was born in the year of our 
Lord 1474, and died 1533. (Remark j.) 

Let your affections be cultivated with ardor and purity through 
all the successive periods of life. (Rule, § i. ; and Remark e.) 

Let us not think of the departed as looking on us with earthly, 
partial affections. (Rule, § i.) 

Who can look on this scene without an increase of love and 
reverence and trust? (Rule, § n.) 

The dormant faculties of men seem only to be awaiting more 
favorable circumstances to disclose themselves. (First of Rem. h.) 

The soul is nursed for heaven by the discipline of a sacred sor- 
row. (Rule, § i.) 

The well-being of a community cannot flow from the simple effect 
of one great change however necessary or successful. (Rule, § n.) 

The grandeur and vastness of human hope are corresponded to 
by a similar grandeur and vastness of human nature. (Rule, § i.) 

Some men put on the appearance of virtue in order to succeed in 
their nefarious enterprises. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark i.) 

There are many topics on which individuals may hold the greatest 
diversity of opinion without any diminution of holy sympathy in the 
essential principles of religion. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark e.) 

Seek for distinction only among the honest and pious. Seek for 
distinction but only among the honest and pious. (Rule, §§ i., n.; 
and Remarks c, d.) 

Let us employ the powers which our Creator has given us in such 
a manner as will be fitted to purify and elevate our nature. (Rule, 
§n.) 

Moral light must be intermingled with intellectual light to con- 
duct us safely through our mortal course. (Rule, § n. ; and last 
portion of Remark h.) 

No man can struggle, for years together, to evolve his character 
into pure moral manhood without shedding around him a benignant, 
life-giving influence. (Rule, § n.) 



INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 83 

RULE XIII. 
Inverted or Transposed Expressions. 

Many phrases which, in their natural or usual order, 
do not require to be punctuated, are, when inverted, 
set off by a comma from the rest of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. By Cowley, the philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus. 

2. To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment. 

3. Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect and delightful. 

4. In perusing the works of enlightened men, we ought to think much. 

REMARKS. 

a. The natural or usual order of words in English composition, 
if adopted in the above sentences, would run as follows : " The 
philosopher Hobbes is compared by Cowley to Columbus." — " Old 
age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment to the wise and good." — 
" Sight is the most perfect and delightful of all our senses." — " We 
ought to think much in perusing the works of enlightened men." 
It will be seen, that the phrases which have been punctuated in the 
examples, are, when put in the usual order, written without com- 
mas, in accordance with the first part of Eule XII., p. 78. 

b. In the inverted or rhetorical style in which these sentences are 
exemplified under the rule, it is obvious, that, if the comma were 
omitted, we could not read or understand them, without a greatei 
exercise of the judgment than is required when that point is inserted 
after each transposed phrase. 

c. But the rule, as commonly laid down by grammarians, is by no 
means universal in its application. The mere circumstance of the 
transposition of a word or phrase is not a sufficient reason for intro- 
ducing a comma, as may readily be seen by inspecting either a 
single page of an author who adopts this style, or a few lines in any 
of the poets ; and indeed, were all such inversions punctuated, both 
perspicuity and good taste would be in numberless instances violated. 
On the other hand, actual usage is so discordant, that, in many cases, 
it would seem to be a matter of mere choice, whether an inverted 
phrase should have a comma or not. By attention, however, to the 
various modes in which the sentences under notice are formed, most 
of the practical difficulties would be overcome. 



84 THE COMMA. 

d. In accordance with the remark just made, the comma should 
be dispensed with under the following circumstances, — unless the 
inverted portions of a sentence are both of them clauses, or severally 
end and begin with words of the same part of speech, with a noun 
and an adjective, or vice versA : — 

1. When the first inverted portion contains a noun governed by 
a verb in the last part of the sentence; as, " That interesting and 
valuable history he did not read.'''' — " Him and his actions you will 
very probably imitate.'''' — " The praise of judgment has Virgil justly 
contested with Homer." 

2. When the second portion of the sentence commences with a 
verb, whether principal or auxiliary, before its nominative; as, " At 
the bottom of the garden ran a little rivulet." — " Of the variegated 
mountain shall nought remain unchanged." — " Underneath our 
happiest mirth is a calm fountain of sober thought." 

3. When a preposition is removed from the word to which it 
usually belongs, and placed at the beginning of the inverted phrase ; 
as, " With that portion of the work he was the least satisfied; " in- 
stead of, " He was the least satisfied with that portion of the work." 
— " To egotists and pedants I have a strong antipathy.'" — " Of all 
truly noble feelings they were quite unsusceptible.'' 1 

4. When the first of the inverted portions of a sentence begins 
with the words it is, or only ; as, " It is in the sphere of intellect alone 
that men are becoming truly civilized." — " Only on a few slight 
occasions they felt disposed to be merciful." 

5. When, though a distinct articulation may require a slight 
pause, an inverted phrase can be read in close connection with what 
follows it, without affecting the import of the sentence; as, " In 
infancy the mind is peculiarly ductile." — " To each the soul of each 
how dear ! " — " By these swords we acquired our liberties." — " In 
a lucid manner the orator expressed his ideas." 

6. When an expression precedes an inverted phrase which is 
connected more closely with the latter portion of the sentence than 
with the former ; as, " However opposite may be the sides from 
which we start at the foot of the mountain, in approaching its summit 
we approach one another." 

e. By carefully comparing the examples given under Kemark d 
with those under the rule, and with a few additional ones, which, 
for the sake of reference, we shall now present, the student will be 
struck with the fact, that, though in some respects similar to each 



INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 85 

other, they are in other and various respects dissimilar ; and he will 
also perceive, that, while the insertion of a comma in the examples 
belonging to Remark d would be of no advantage in bringing out t 
true meaning of the sentences, the omission of the point between 
the inverted portions of those about to be exhibited would operate 
to a greater or less extent in impeding an easy comprehension of the 
sense : — 

1. That interesting and valuable history which you lent him, he did not read. 
Him whose actions you approve, you will very probably imitate. 

The praise of judgment, Virgil has justly contested with Homer. 

2. At the bottom of the garden, a little rivulet ran. 

Of the variegated mountain, nought shall remain unchanged. 
Underneath our happiest mirth, there is a calm fountain of sober thought. 

3. With that portion of the work, Jeffrey was the least satisfied. 
To egotists and pedants, sensible men have a strong antipathy. 
Of all feelings that are truly noble, they were quite unsusceptible. 

4. In the sphere of intellect alone, men are becoming truly civilized. 
On a few slight occasions, they felt disposed to be merciful. 

By forgetfulness of injuries, we show ourselves superior to them. 

5. In youth, shun the temptations to which youth is exposed. 

To each, honor is given. — By these, various opinions may be held. 

In a remarkably striking and lucid manner, the orator expressed his ideas. 

6. In approaching the summit of a mountain, we approach one another. 

f. When, however, no serious error would be produced by the 
omission of the comma, the briefer inverted phrases, even those 
belonging to the above class, may be left unpointed, if they occur 
in clauses set off by commas ; as, " On piety humanity is built, and 
on humanity much happiness, and yet still more on piety itself." 
Instances of this kind are often met with in poetry. 

g. But such inverted words as appear in the second and third 
examples of No. 5 above, where the omission of the comma would 
manifestly tend to confusion or error, must in all cases be punc- 
tuated. So also must any phrase that is equivalent to a clause, or 
into which it is easily convertible; as, " In believing attainment 
impossible, you will make it so; " that is, " If you believe," &c. (see 
Rule XIV., p. 89); the only exception to the use of the point here 
being when such a phrase is used under the circumstances specified 
in Remark d 6. 

h. All inverted phrases, when preceded by other phrases or by 
clauses, are treated as parenthetical expressions, and punctuated 
according to Rule VIII. and the remarks thereon, pp. 64, 65. 



86 THE COMMA. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

Why, according to Rule XIII. and Remarks (pp. 83-85), are commas inserted or 
omitted between the transposed expressions in the following sentences? — 

To most, religion is a mere tradition or a momentary feeling. 

In fearless freedom he arose. — By vicious examples be not misled. 

Of all ill habits, that of idleness is the most incorrigible. 

The first-fruit of your daily thoughts consecrate to God. 

In all sublime scenes, there is a mixture of the awful. 

With earnest heart I humbly crave my latter end like his may be. 

The history of past ages, men often read to little purpose. 

Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted. 

To minds of a devout temper, the eternal is mirrored in the temporal. 

In the British Museum is the original work of Copernicus. 

Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you. 

Only by degrees we turn our thoughts inwardly on ourselves. 

Without much thought, books cannot be profitably read. 

To public opinion all states must in a measure bow. 

Of good delivery, distinct articulation is an essential requisite. 

Against great force of reasoning it is in vain to contend. 

By the faults or errors of others, wise men correct their own. 

In early years the habits of industry are most easily acquired. 

At his control, despair and anguish fled the struggling soul. 

Through her rags do the winds of the winter blow bleak. 

To study the science of spirit, I must enter my own soul. 

All the appearances of nature I was careful to study. 

By good nature, half the misery of human life is assuaged. 

In silent and solitary places, genius is often found. 

Into that glorious world he constantly beckons us to follow him. 

Like a spectre in the night, the grandeur of Home is vanished. 

Scipio, Milton called " the height of Rome." — In thee I confide. 

It is only by devotion to liberal pursuits that we can be truly liberal 

Greater exploits than force, counsel and wisdom achieve. 

To thee I pour my prayer. — In power and wealth exult no more. 

What is the right path, few men take the trouble of inquiring. 

This great error I wish to expose. — It is a place he aspires to hold. 

In meeting with a madman, feign yourself a fool. 

To those whose interests are in danger, time is valuable. 

For want of this, genius has been a scourge to the world. 

In eternity God dwelleth, free from anger and from pain. 

With the many, life is one round of never-ceasing toil. 



INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 87 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Punctuate the following sentences, or leave them unpointed, in accordance with 
the thirteenth Rule and the Remarks thereon: — 

Li the production and preservation of order all men recognize 
something that is sacred. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 

■ From the right exercise of our intellectual powers arises one of 
the chief sources of our happiness. (Remark d 2, 3.) 

Through life truth ought to be one of the great objects of human 
pursuit. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 

In the attainment of all excellence in the arts patronage and 
genius should go hand in hand. (Rule.) 

Education is at home a friend, abroad an introduction, in solitude 
a solace, in society an ornament. (Remark d 5.) 

In every material action of your life consider weU its probable 
result. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 

Of all our virtuous emotions those of kind regard are the most 
readily imitated. (Rule.) 

In the solemn silence of the mind are formed those great resolu 
tions which decide the fate of men. (Remark of 2.) 

Before giving way to anger try to find a reason for not being 
angry. (Rule, and last portion of Remark g.) 

In the acuteness of the external senses some of the inferior animals 
excel our species. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 

Over matchless talents probity should throw its brightest lustre. 
(Rule, and Remark e 3.) 

It is from the spirit's own pearl that the good embellish their 
character. (Remark d 4.) 

From the little root of a few letters science has spread its branches 
over all nature, and raised its head to the heavens. (Rule.) 

Only in the light of a sublime faith can the history of our race be 
read without despondency. (Remarks d 2, 4.) 

In the ruffled and angry hour we view every appearance through 
a false medium. (Remark e 5.) 

It is through moral and spiritual power that the rivers of thought 
and feeling are to be turned. (Remark d 4.) 

Friend of the brave ! in peril's darkest hour 

Intrepid Virtue looks to thee for power. (Remark d 6.) 

Of ah treasons against humanity there is no one worse than his 
who employs great intellectual force to keep down the intellect of 
hh less-favored brethren. (Rule.) 



88 THE COMMA. 

In these hours of golden leisure my chief haunt is the banks of a 
small stream. (Rule, and Eemark e 5.) 

This view of religion I propose to make the subject of some free 
discussion. (Remark d 1.) 

In amusement and novel-reading only the girl spends all her 
evening hours. (Rule, and Remark e 4.) 

On feelings allied to these priestcraft and sorcery have often 
fastened themselves. (Rule, and Remark e 3.) 

In order to improve the mind we ought less to learn than to con 
template. (Rule, and last portion of Remark g.) 

With what you have be satisfied. — All you hear believe not. 
(Remark d, third line.) 

In the hurry and eagerness of selfish competition we underrate 
the silent influence of moral character. (Rule, and Remark e 5.) 

When others are asleep, in its own contemplations the soul finds 
a source of solace and pleasure. (Remark d 6.) 

In not learning your business perfectly you cannot give satisfac- 
tion to your employer. (Rule; and Remark e 6, and last of g.) 

To every character its fitting position and appropriate function 
have been assigned. (Remark d 3.) 

It is to the unaccountable oblivion of our mortality that the world 
owes all its fascination. (Remark d 4.) 

By doing nothing we learn to do ill. — To command any subject 
adequately we must stand above it. (Rule, and last of Remark g.) 

In this struggle his moral discipline consists. On no other terms 
could he be at once a dweller on earth and an heir of heaven. 
(Remark d 3, 2, 5.) 

On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 

Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 

Even from the tomb the voice of nature cries, 

Even in our ashes live their wonted fires. (Rem. d 3, 1, 5, 2.) 

Through the dim veil of the visible and perishing man catches a 
glimpse of the vast significance of the unseen and the eternal. (Rule, 
and Remark e 5.) 

On beds of green sea-flower thy limbs shall be laid, 

Around thy white bones the red coral shall grow, 

Of thy fair yellow locks threads of amber be made, 

And every part suit to thy mansion below. (Rem. d 3, 5, and f.) 

Into every human being has God breathed an immortal soul. — 
Into every human being God has breathed an immortal soul. (Re 
marks d2 and e 2.) 



DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 89 

RULE XIV. 
One Clause Depending on Another, 

Two clauses, one depending on the other, are sepa- 
rated by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. If you would be reTenged on your enemies, let your life be blameless 

2. TVealth is of no real use, except it be well employed. 

3. Unless it blossoms in the spring, the tree -will not bear fruit in autumn. 

4. Till we can go alone, we must lean on the hand of a guide. 

5. Fill thy heart with goodness, and thou wilt find that the world is full of good. 

REMARKS. 

a. Sentences containing dependent clauses are generally distin- 
guished by one of them beginning with a particle expressive of 
condition, admission, purpose, causation, time, or place. They are 
not, however, necessarily so constructed, as is shown in the fifth 
example, the clauses of which depend, one on the other, not in form, 
but in sense ; being equivalent to — " If thou fill thy heart with 
goodness, thou wilt find," &c. 

b. A phrase having the import of a conditional clause, and put at 
the beginning of the sentence, is also distinguished by a comma ; as, 
" To be good, you must do good; " that is, " That you may be good, 
you must do good." — See p. 85, last portion of g. 

c. When, in a sentence relating to time, place, or manner, the 
clause beginning with an adverb is put last, and is closely connected 
in sense with what precedes it, the comma should not be inserted; 
as, " I love my kind where'er I roam." — " You will reap as you 
sow." Clauses like these maybe regarded as akin to the restrictive 
relative. — See Kule vTL, § n., p. 57. 

d. But if the adverbs tchen, where, &c, have only a faint reference 
to time or place, or introduce an additional idea, they should fce 
preceded by a comma; as, " Eefrain not to speak, when by speaking 
you may be useful to others." — " Andrew sailed for California. 
where he does a flourishing business." 

6. When the conjunctions if and because are used to bind closely 
together the two clauses between which they are severally placed, 
the comma is unnecessary; as " You may go if you will." — " Sin 
is not less dangerous because men are hardened by it." 



90 THE COMMA. 

/". No point should be introduced between two clauses united by 
the conjunction that, signifying purpose or design, if it is closely 
connected with the preceding verb ; as, " He visited the springs that 
he might improve his health." But a comma must be inserted if 
the conjunction is separated at some distance from the verb; as, 
" Let us consider the following propositions, that we may fully under- 
stand the subject." 

g. The comma is usually admissible between the clauses, when 
the words in order come before the conjunction that, unless they are 
preceded immediately by the verb ; as, " Csesar visited Britain, in 
order that he might conquer the inhabitants." — " The man travelled 
in order that he might regain his strength." 

h. The distinction recommended in the punctuation of the first 
example under each of the Eemarks / and g may seem rather nice ; 
but, undoubtedly, the phrase in order that obstructs the flow of a 
sentence more than the simple conjunction that. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

Hhow how Rule XIV. is applicable to the punctuation of the sentences that 
follow : — 

Where thoughts kindle, words spontaneously flow. 

The good which men do is not lost, though it is often disregarded. 

If there were no cowardice, there would be little insolence. 

Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot enter. 

It were no virtue to bear calamities, if we did not feel them. 

Make men intelligent, and they become inventive. 

Though a civilization may die, it leaves imperishable records. 

People are rude and impolite, because they are ignorant. 

Wherever we are, we are not forgotten by a kind Providence. 

Were patrons more disinterested, ingratitude would be more rare. 

Since none enjoy all blessings, be content with a few. 

Go where a man may, home is the centre to which his heart tarns, 

As we grow older, life becomes dim in the distance. 

We obey the laws of society, because they are the laws of v:rtue. 

While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 

Dare to be good, whatever evil may surround you. 

If their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. 

When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 

Make up your mind to do a thing, and you will do it. 

Every thing is beautiful, if left where nature meant it to be. 



DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 91 

How do the Remarks (pp. 89, 90) apply to the punctuation of the following' 
sentences: — 

Drop upon Fox's grave the tear, 'twill trickle to his rival's bier. 

By playing with a fool at home, he'll play with you abroad. 

I will see you when you arrive. — I will go whither thou goest. 

He went away as soon as I came. — Use time as if you knew its value. 

Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. 

Quietness and peace nourish where justice and reason govern. 

Let us live while we live. — Fear not, while acting justly. 

He went to the city of Manchester, where he remained for a year. 

The age of miracles is past, while that of prejudice remains. 

Sense shines with the greatest lustre, when it is set in humanity. 

I fled because I was afraid.— Speak clearly if you would be understood. 

Truth is to be loved, purely and solely because it is true. 

Live well that you may die well. — We go that we may be in time. 

Be studious and diligent, in order that you may become learned. 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Point, or leave unpointed, the following sentences, according to the principles laid 
down in the fourteenth Rule and the Remarks s — 

When the great man is laid in his grave lies of malice are apt to 
give way to lies of adulation. (Rule.) 

Decide not by authoritative rules when they are inconsistent with 
reason. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

A man may comfort himself for the wrinkles in his face provided 
his heart be fortified with virtue. (Rule.) 

We cannot turn in any direction where the Creator's love does 
not smile around us. (Remark c.) 

If theological gossip were the measure of religious faith we should 
be the devoutest of all human generations. (Rule.) 

We cannot raise the moral standard of the depressed classes till we 
have first improved their social condition. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

Unless he put a bridle on his tongue the babbler will soon shut 
himself out from all society. (Rule.) 

Have respect for yourself that others may not disrespect you. 
(Rule, and last sentence of Remark f.) 

We should be ashamed of many of our actions were the world 
acquainted with our motives. (Rule.) 

By timely resisting them the greatest evils may be overcome 
Rule, and Remark b.) 



92 THE COMMA. 

If there be nothing celestial without us it is only because all h 
earthly within. (Eule.) 

Eemember your own feelings in order that you may judge of the 
feelings of others. (Rule, and Remarks g, h.) 

Where the whole is one dark blot of shade there can be no 
picture. (Rule.) 

Breathe into men a fervent purpose and you awaken powers 
before unknown. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

Some people endeavor to divert their thoughts lest their minds 
should reproach them. (Rule.) 

We were present when General Lafayette embarked at Havre for 
New York. (Remark c.) 

When we combat error with any other weapon than argument 
we err more than those whom we attack. (Rule.) 

Let all dispose their hours till midnight when again we pray your 
presence. (Remark d.) 

In how small a compass lie all the elements of man's truest hap- 
piness if society were only conducted in a rational spirit ! (Rule.) 

Suppress the first desires of evil as soon as they arise, and extin 
guish the spark before it spreads. (Remark c.) 

Where true religion has prevented one crime false religions have 
afforded a pretext for a thousand. (Rule.) 

Our hearts should be filled with gratitude when we contemplate 
the wonderful works of nature. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

The lives of men should be filled with beauty even as the earth 
and heavens are clothed with it. (Rule.) 

Rear stronger minds and they will lift up the race to sublimer 
heights of dignity and power. (Rule, and Remark a.) 

There never is true eloquence except when great principles and 
sentiments have entered into the substance of the soul. (Rule.) 

We live that we may die. — Attend that you may receive instruc- 
tion. (Remark f, first sentence.) 

If women fulfilled truly their divine errand there would be no 
need of reforming societies. (Rule.) 

We compare the divine Mind with ours that we may have some- 
thing within the grasp of our reason to dwell upoa. (Last of Rem.y.) 

We weep over the dead because they have no life, and over the 
living because they have no perfection. (Remark e.) 

Give me a larger eye and I will reveal to you another rank of 
worlds marshalled behind those whose shining hosts you now behold. 
(Rule, and Remark a.) 



CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 93 

RULE XV. 
Correlative Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

§ I. Two correlative expressions, united by the 
conjunction as or than, are written without a point 
between them. 

§ II. But, when united by any other word than 
these conjunctions, the correlative expressions are dis- 
tinguished by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

§ I- 

1. Men are never | so easily deceived || as when they plot to deceive others. 

2. A child in the humhlest walks of life is | as richly gifted |[ as in the highest. 

3. Only | such repentance is beneficial || as makes us wiser and better. 
Do not spend | more time in bed || than is required for sleep. 

§ II. 

1. But | though learned and methodical, || yet the teacher was not a pedant. 

2. A great man will | neither trample on a worm, || nor cringe before a king. 

3. All know that | as virtue is its own reward, || so vice is its own punishment. 

4. Yes, | the more we see of a truly good man, || the better we love him. 

REMARK S. 

a. To indicate the true character of the sentences just quoted, we 
have put two perpendicular lines between each pair of correlative 
expressions, and a single line before the first expression, in each 
example. It will be seen, that the phrases or clauses beginning seve- 
rally with the correlative words, " so — as," " as — as," " such — as," 
'* more — than," which occur in the first class of examples, have a 
stronger attraction to each other than those commencing with the 
correlatives "though — yet," "neither — nor," "as — so," "the more — 
the better," in the second; and that, on this account, the expressions 
under the former division are properly written without commas, and 
those under the latter with them. 

b. When the conjunction but is improperly used, after so, for as 
and a negative, the sentence is subject to the principle of punc- 
tuation contained in the first section of the rule ; as, " There is no 
opinion so absurd but has [as not to have] some philosopher or other 
to produce in its support." 



94 THE COMMA. 

c. When, in sentences inferable to the first division of the rule, 
the last of the correlative words requires a comma after it, a comma 
should also be inserted between the correlative expressions ; as, " The 
mind that boasts of its rich endowments is so limited and cramped, 
as, in comparison with what it might* enjoy, to be utterly poor and 
naked." It is evident, that, without the point before the conjunction 
as, this word would seem to be more closely united with the preced- 
ing than with the following portion of the sentence, to which it 
rather belongs. 

d> Correlative expressions should be separated, it ambiguity of 
sense would be occasioned in any instance by the omission of the 
comma before the second correlative; as, " Greater is he that pro- 
phesieth, than he that speaketh with tongues." Without the point, 
the sentence might be improperly read so as to mean, — " Greater 
is he that prophesieth with tongues than he that speaketh with 
tongues." 

e. So, also, m respect to the same class of sentences, the correla- 
tive expressions are better separated by a comma, when they consist 
of two or more phrases ; as, " We can no more preserve a stationary 
attitude | in the moral world, than we can refuse to accompany the 
physical earth | in its rotation." Here, the insertion of the point, 
though not essential, shows more clearly those portions of the sen- 
tence to which each set of phrases belongs, and by this means serves 
to bring out the sense. 

f. As an exception to the second division of the rule, it may be 
remarked, that the comma is better omitted between clauses contain- 
ing the correlative words so or such — that, when they are closely 
connected ; as, " John was so much injured that he could not walk." — 
" The earthquake produced such a shock that it awoke us all." 

g. But if these correlatives are placed at or near the beginning 
of the clauses to which they respectively belong, or if the last cor- 
relative word has a comma after it, the clauses should be separated, 
agreeably to the rule; as, " So benevolent a man was he, that almost 
every act of his was devoted to the well-being of his race." — " Man 
is so created, that, let his wants be as simple as they will, he must 
labor to supply them." 

h. Expressions beginning with both, — and, whether — or, either — or, 
neither — nor, are generally separated by a comma when each is a 
clause, but left unpointed when one of them is a phrase ; as, " Neither 
flatter yourselves, nor permit others to flatter you." — " We cannot 
trace either their causes or their effects." 



CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 95 

ORAL EXERCISES. 

Agreeably to Rule XV. (p. 93), state why some of the following sentences are 
printed with, and others without, the comma: — 

It is easier to rouse the passions than to direct the mind. 

When pride cometh, then cometh shame. — She is as good as he. 

No one is so much alone in the universe as a denier of God. 

As we do to others, so shall it be done unto us. 

Man gains wider dominion by his intellect than by his right arm. 

Wherever man is, there are the elements of poetry. 

Every one has as much vanity as he is deficient in understanding. 

If you know that your object is good, then without hesitation seek it. 

A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. 

Though truth is feai-less and absolute, yet she is meek and modest 

I have returned to refute a libel as false as it is malicious. 

The more industrious you are, the sooner will you learn a trade. 

Be governed more by a regard to duty than by a prospect of gain. 

Such as the tree is, such will be the fruit. 

We can discover nothing so sublime as the spivit of self-sacrifice. 

The better a proverb is, the more trite it generally becomes. 



Show how the preceding Remarks will apply to the punctuation of correlative 
clauses and phrases in the following sentences : — 

No errors are so trivial but they deserve to be mended, and no sin 
so slight but it should be repented of and renounced. 

Our sympathy is always awakened more by hearing the speaker, 
than by reading his works in our closet. 

Only such sorrow purifies and blesses, as comes to us in the pur 
suit of high and noble ends. 

Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox, and 
hatred therewith. 

Virtue is so amiable that even the vicious admire it. — So frowned 
the mighty combatants, that hell grew darker at the sight. 

Such was the rush of the people, that but few could be admitted 
to the lecture. 

Grace of manners is so essential to rulers, that, whenever t is 
neglected, their virtues lose a great degree of lustre. 

Whether my gift be liberal, or whether it be niggardly, is not the 
question. — Whether right or wrong, I am held responsible. 

We can neither fly from the presence of God, nor escape his 
sight. — Virtue is neither a phantom nor a vain vision. 



96 



THE COMMA. 



EXEECISE TO BE WRITTEN. 



Let these sentences be punctuated or not, agreeably to the fifteenth Rule and the 
Remarks (pp. 93,94): — 

We are so afraid of each other's doctrines that we cannot cure 
each other's sins. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark g.) 

Does not the glorious sun pour down his golden flood as cheerily 
on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace? (Rule, § i.) 

We must not only avoid what God has forbidden but do what he 
has commanded. (Rule, § n.) 

One angel's history may be a volume of more various truth than 
all the records of our race. (Rule, § i.) 

Although men are accused for not knowing their own weakness 
yet perhaps as few know their own strength. (Rule, § n.) 

He is a better man who wisely speaks than he who talks at ran- 
dom. (Remark d.) 

No sublimity is so real as that which makes itself deeply felt in 
union with beauty. (Rule, § i.) 

Though he were as rich as Croesus still would man be dissatisfied 
with his condition. (Rule, §§ i., n.) 

Better live an honest poor man than die a selfish and grasping 
millionnaire. (Rule, § i.) 

What thou forbiddest us that will we shun and abhor: what thou 
commandest us that will we love and pursue. (Rule, § n.) 

My engagements are of such a character as will deprive me of 
partaking the festivities of the day. (Rule, § i.) 

Such is the course of nature that whoever lives long must outlive 
those whom he loves. (Rule, § n. ; and Remark g.) 

The doll-shop is as fit a place for studying character as the fashion- 
able dinner-party, the assembly, or the ball-room. (Remark e.) 

The rarer the beauty of the external scene the deeper should be 
the impression of the unseen God. (Rule, § n.) 

Of things invisible, the evidence can never be such as those who 
rely on purely intellectual assurance will demand. (Rule, § I.) 

The more a man speaks of himself the less he likes to hear 
another spoken of. (Rule, § n.) 

Nothing appears to us so beautiful in human experience as the 
reciprocal affection of parents and children. (Rule, § i.) 

The gigantic genius of Shakspeare so far surpassed the learning 
and penetration of his time that his productions were little read and 
less admired. (Rule, § n.; and Remark g.) 



CORRELATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 97 



Rather do good than seem to be. — So live with men as if God 
saw you. (Rule, § I.) 

The progress of some men is so rapid that they keep ahead of 
common sense. (Remark f.) 

Neither could he obtain the benefits which he desired nor avert 
the calamities which he feared. (Rule, § n. ; and first of Remark h.) 

I am as much known to God as if I were the single object of his 
attention. (Rule, § I.) 

Art is capable of not only imitating nature in her graces but even 
of adorning her with graces of her own. (Rule, § II.) 

Either the mere will of the magistrate or the conscience of the 
individual must decide in the case. (Remark h, second portion.) 

The more the love of poetry is cultivated and refined the more do 
men strive to make their outward lives rhythmical and hannonious. 
(Rule, § ii.) 

There is no part of social life which affords more real satisfaction 
than those hours which one passes in rational and unreserved con- 
versation. (Rule, § i.) 

Not more do we discern in the writings of Shakspeare the greatest 
manifestation of human genius than in the reality of Christ the high- 
est expression of the Divine. (Remark e.) 

The more highly we cultivate our minds here the better shall we 
be prepared for the nobler pursuits of the next stages of our exist- 
ence. (Rule, § H.) 

It had been better for them not to have known the way of right- 
eousness than, after they have known it, to turn from the holy 
commandment delivered unto them. (Remark c or e.) 

As no cause 
For such exalted confidence could e'er 
Exist so none is now for fixed despair. (Rule, § n.) 

The age in which George II. reigned was not by any means 
marked by such striking features of originality or vigor as some of 
the preceding eras. (Rule, § i.) 

There is nothing which employs the mind and the heart so attrac- 
tively as the close study of character in all its smaller peculiarities. 
(Rule, § i.) 

The universe at large would suffer as little in its splendor and 
variety by the destruction of our planet as the verdure and sub- 
lime magnitude of a forest would suffer by the fall of a single leaf. 
(Remark e.) 

7 



98 



THE COMMA. 



RULE XVI. 

Phrases and Clauses in the same Construction. 

Two or more phrases or clauses, when in the same 
construction, are separated by a comma from each other, 
and, when they do not complete a proposition, from the 
remainder of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. No one ought unnecessarily to wound the feelings of his neighbors, or to 

insult their religious prepossessions. 

2. Kegret for the past, grief at the present, and anxiety respecting the future, 

are plagues which affect the generality of men. 

3. Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and gleams out in the hues 

of the shell and the precious stone. 

4. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use 

them. 

REMARK S. 

a. The first and second of these sentences exemplify the use of 
phrases in the same construction ; the third and fourth, that of clauses. 
Both kinds of expressions are said to be in the same construction, 
for these reasons, — that, in the first example, the infinitives " to 
wound," "to insult," are each governed by one and the same verb, 
" ought;" that, in the second, the whole series of phrases forms a 
compound nominative to the verb "are;" that, in the third, the 
verbs "haunts" and "gleams," occurring respectively in the two 
clauses, have the same nominative, "beauty;" and that, in the 
fourth, the clauses are all formed alike, and have a mutual relation. 
In the second example, the co-ordinate expressions do not conclude 
the proposition ; and therefore a comma is put after the last of these, 
in order to point out their common dependence on what follows. 

b. When two brief phrases are formed alike, and united by either 
of the conjunctions and, or, nor, the comma is better omitted between 
them ; as, " A healthy body and a sound mind should be preserved 
as real blessings." — " The pastimes of youth have a tendency to 
invigorate the body or to expand the mind." The omission of the 
point is particularly recommended, when two phrases form a com- 
pound parenthetical expression, or belong to one; as, " We must file 
a protest against the practice of destroying the birds of the garden; 
for, besides depriving us of the beauty of their appearance and the ; 



EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE. 99 

of their song, it lets in a flood of insects, whose numbers the birds 
were commissioned to keep down." — See p. 46, /. 

c. If, however, by omitting the comma, two such phrases might 
be read so as to obscure or pervert the meaning, the point must be 
inserted; as, "Receive blessings with thankfulness, and afflictions 
with resignation." — See also p. 29, f. 

d. When two connected phrases are different in form or in the 
number of words, their relation to the context is better seen when 
they are set off by commas; as, " Undue susceptibility, and the pre- 
ponderance of mere feeling over thoughtfulness, may mislead us." 

e. The same mode of punctuation is adopted for a word and a 
phrase, or for a series consisting partly of words and partly of phrases ; 
a comma, however, being put after the last particular, when it does 
not end the clause; as, " Calmness, modesty, candor, forgetfulness of 
self, and love of others, are all required for the occasion." 

f. But, to prevent ambiguity, a little care is sometimes necessary 
to discriminate phrases from single words, as in the following sen- 
tence: " Their depravity, their spiritual ignorance and destitution, are 
awfully great." Were a comma put after " ignoi-ance," the sentence 
would be analyzed improperly, and convey a wrong meaning; 
whereas the sense of the passage requires the Italicized portion to be 
viewed, not as a phrase and a word, but as a mere phrase, and punc- 
tuated as above. By omitting the adjectival words, " then* spiritual," 
which qualify both of the nouns " ignorance " and " destitution," the 
punctuation would, according to Rule III., p. 37, be thus exhibited: 
" Their depravity, ignorance, and destitution are awfully great." 

g. When a series consists both of words and phrases, all con- 
nected by one of the conjunctions and, or, nor, the comma should be 
omitted between the single words, but inserted between the phrases ; 
as, " Some men would be distinguished in their occupation or pur- 
suit or profession, or in the style of living, or in the dignity of office, 
or in the glare and pride and pomp of power." — See p. 38, h. 

h. When a series consists of phrases or clauses, united by either 
of the conjunctions just named, the particulars are separated from 
one another by a comma; as, " Reach the goal, and gain the pi*ize, 
and wear the crown." But, if the series is used parenthetically, the 
commas may be omitted ; as, " Through the soul we have direct 
access to God, and, by a trustful heart and a submissive will and a 
devoted service, may spiritually unite ourselves with him." — See b. 

i. Pairs of words are regarded as phrases, and punctuated in 
accordance with the rule ; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and 

LOFC. 



100 THE COMMA. 

distress, follow a civil war." — " Whether we eat or drink, labor or 
sleep, we should be moderate." 

j. It is very usual, particularly in the United States, to omit the 
comma between the number of a house or shop and the street, and 
after the name of a month when preceding that of the year to which 
it belongs ; but, a? these words are employed neither adjectively nor 
in apposition, the point should, beyond all doubt, be inserted; as, 
" No. 140, Broadway, New York, January, 1855." — " Thomas Tegg, 
bookseller, 73, Gheapside." In accordance with the same principle, 
a comma should be put after a reference made to any of the sacred 
books, when it is followed immediately by the chapter and verse ; as, 
" John, xvi. 20 : " unless the references to Scripture are numerous, 
when, for the sake of neatness, the comma is better omitted. 

Tc. Consecutive or co-ordinate clauses, if not joined by a conjunc- 
tion, are sometimes better distinguished by a semicolon or a colon 
than by a comma; as, " Death is certain; time, uncertain." — " Death 
is certain: time is uncei'tain." — See Rule XVII., p. 104. 

I. To exhibit the limits of the rule, it may not be improper to 
anticipate what will be more fully treated of in the next section; 
namely, that clauses, when separable into smaller portions requiring 
the comma, are separated from each other by a semicolon ; as, " How 
strange it seems, that the passion of love should be the supreme 
mover of the world ; that it is this which has dictated the greatest 
sacrifices, and influenced all societies and all times; that to this the 
loftiest and loveliest genius has ever consecrated its devotion ; that 
but for love there were no civilization, no music, no poetry, no 
beauty, no life beyond the brute's ! " The sentences given to exem- 
plify the rule are not thus divisible, and are therefore punctuated 
only by means of the comma. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 
Say why, according to Rule XVI., commas are inserted in these sentences: — 

To cleanse our own opinions from falsehood, our hearts from 
malignity, and our actions from vice, is our first concern. 

Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and perform what ycu 
promise. 

Great moral principles, pure and generous dispositions, cannot be 
confined to this or that spot. 

The true worshipper of beauty sees it in the lowliest flower, meets 
it in every path, enjoys it everywhere. 



EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE. 101 

Eloquence is to be attained by the full culture, the general en- 
riching, of the heart and mind. 

Has God provided for the poor a coarser earth, a thinner air, a 
paler sky ? 

The voice of merriment and of wailing, the steps of the busy and 
the idle, have ceased in the deserted courts. 

Man was created to search for truth, to love the beautifd, to 
desire what is good, and to do the best. 

You may dazzle men's eyes with large enterprises in philanthropy, 
but possess notbing of the philanthropic spirit. 

Beauty flows in the waves of light, radiates from the human face 
divine, and sparkles in the pathway of every child. 

The devil loves nothing better than the intolerance of reformers, 
and dreads nothing so much as their charity and patience. 

Infinite space, endless numbers, and eternal duration, fill the mind 
with great ideas. 

Assign the reasons given in the Remarks (pp. 98, 99) for the insertion or the 
omission of commas in such sentences as the following .- — 

It is education that charactei-izes mental power as the talent of 
an angel or the capacity of a fiend. 

Eminent talent and distinguished attainment are sometimes con- 
nected with obliquity of character. 

The student may, by close application and by proper culture, 
attain ease and grace in his composition. 

Some persons mistake abhorrence of vice for uncharitableness, 
and piety for enthusiasm. 

Suffering often calls forth our best feelings, and the highest energies 
of the mind. 

Fraud, enthusiasm, and narrowness of view, often shape the 
premises to fit the conclusion. 

The beauty of his moral character, his generous impulses and 
sympathies, were the tbeme of every tongue. 

Babylon and Troy and Tyre, and even early Eome, are passing 
already into fiction. 

Age never dims their sight, nor slackens their speed, nor weakens 
their force, nor abates their fidelity. 

Perfection of mind consists of firmness and mildness, of force and 
tenderness, of vigor and grace. 

On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, the Puritans 
looked down with contempt. 



102 THE COMMA. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Let the punctuation of such of the following sentences as require to be pointed 
accord with the Rule and Remarks (pp. 98-100) : — 

Joint effort conquers nature hews through mountains rears pyra- 
mids dikes out the ocean. (Eule.) 

With a callous heart, there can be no genius in the imagination 
or wisdom in the mind. (Rule, and Remark c.) 

Genius deals with the possible creates new combinations disco 
vers new laws and acts from an insight into principles. (Rule.) 

Refined manners and polite behaviour must not be deemed alto- 
gether superficial. (First of Remark b.) 

To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world 
and to be wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide. (Rule.) 

Thou art capable of something purer nobler infinitely better than 
thou hast become. (Remark e.) 

Familiarity with the world's vices can never reveal to you the 
world's great truths or enable you to fathom its deep realities. (Rule.) 

It should be the first object of education to form a pure heart 
high principle an earnest and ingenuous spirit. (Rule.) 

We live in times that call for wisdom in contemplation and virtue 
in action. (Rule, and Remark c.) 

Every human being has a work to carry on within duties to per- 
form abroad influences to exert which are peculiarly his. (Rule.) 

Resolute thoughts find words for themselves and make their own 
vehicle. (Rule.) 

The man of enlightened understanding and persevering ardor 
has many sources of enjoyment which the ignorant man cannot 
reach. (First of Remark b.) 

The only distinctions in society which should be recognized are 
those of the soul of strong principle of incorruptible integrity of useful- 
ness of cultivated intellect of fidelity in seeking for truth. (Rule.) 

To the poor and the desolate the timid and the anxious the weary 
and the aged the idea of a common brotherhood must be full of light. 
(Rule, and Remark i.) 

The pure, kind, trustful heart, intent on duty and only ambitious 
of usefulness, bears, in the beaming eye and open brow and gladsome 
voice, unfailing evidence of inward peace and joy. (Last of Rem. h. ) 

Do the voice of the wise and the arm of the brave and the blood 
of the patriot go for nothing in the wild conflict that is desolating 
the earth? (Rule, and first of Remark h.) 



EXPRESSIONS CONSTRUCTED ALIKE. 103 

I know of no great expounder of moral principle I know of no elo- 
quent teacher of divine truth who is more useful in God's world, than 
a husiness-man that carries his religion into his business. (Rule.) 

Can we imagine that God's highest gifts of intelligence imagina- 
tion and moral power were bestowed to provide only for animal 
wants? (Remark e.) 

Ancient superstition introduced the fine arts into her train called 
the powers of genius to her aid and employed the painter and tbe 
poet to hold out her charms to the world. (Rule.) 

"Want and anxiety and habitual discontent and hate of fancied 
oppression can never raise a class and excite it to noble efforts 
(Rule, and Remarks i, g.) 

How often, in surveying the great man's splendid mansion and 
wandering through his ancient woods and beautiful gardens, have we 
met with some touching memorial of human affection! (Remark b, 
both sentences.) 

That fortitude which has encountered no dangers that prudence 
which has surmounted no difficulties that integrity which has been 
attended by no temptations can at best be considered but as gold 
not yet brought to the test. (Rule.) 

Surely this is a world of plenteousness and beauty and gladness 
of loves and friendships of blessed homes and holy altars of sacred 
communions and lofty aspirations and immortal prospects. (Rule, 
and Remarks g, b, and first of h.) 

Faith is the root and foundation of whatever is noble and excel- 
lent in man of all that is mighty and admirable in his intellect of all 
that is amiable and praiseworthy in his affections of all that is sound 
and stable in his moral being. (Rule.) 

Put holy truth in every false heart ; instil a sacred piety into every 
worldly mind and a blessed virtue into every fountain of corrupt 
desires ; and the anxieties of philanthropy might be hushed and the 
tears of benevolent prayer and faith might be dried up and patriotism 
and piety might gaze upon the scene and the prospect with unmin- 
gled joy. (Rule, and Remarks d, h, k, I) 

The culture of the intellect is an unmixed good, when it is sacredly 
used to enlighten the conscience to feed the flame of generous senti- 
ment to perfect us in our common employments to throw a grace 
over our common actions to make us sources of innocent cheerfulness 
and centres of holy influence and to give us courage strength sta- 
bility amidst the sudden changes and sore temptations and trials of 
life. (Rule, and Remarks b, e.) 



104 THE COMMA. 

RULE XVII. 

Clawes having a Verb zmderstood. 

When, in a compound sentence, the clauses have 
each a different nominative, but have only one verb, 
expressed in the first clause and understood in the 
others, the ellipsis, or place of the verb, should be 
supplied by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, to outshine others. 

2. The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool, what he abounds in. 

3. The wise man is happy in his own approbation ; the fool, in the applause 

of his fellows. 

REMARKS. 

a. In the above examples, a comma is inserted after the second 
nominative, " fool," to indicate, in the first sentence, the ellipsis of 
the verb " seeks ; " in the second, that of the verb " considers ; " and, 
in the third, that of the verb and adjective, " is happy." Hence a 
semicolon is required before the second nominative to divide each 
sentence into the two larger portions of which it consists, and to 
show the relation of its various parts. 

b. But, if two clauses have a bearing on a final expression, 
the comma should be omitted after the second nominative, and the 
semicolon before it changed into a comma ; as, " Herder had more of 
the Oriental fancy, Schleiermacher more of the European acuteness, 
in Ms composition" For, were a semicolon put after " fancy," and a 
comma after " Schleiermacher," as in the rule, the phrase "in his 
composition " would seem to be connected only with the last clause, 
though it belongs equally to both. 

c. So, also, when two short clauses are joined by either of the 
conjunctions and, or, nor, but, and any word but a noun follows 
the second nominative, the comma should be omitted where the verb 
is understood, and the semicolon after the first clause exchanged for 
a comma; as, " Life is precarious, and death certain." If a semicolon 
were placed after the word " precarious," it would be necessary to 
separate " death" and " certain" by a comma; as, " Life is preca- 
rious ; and death, certain." But such a mode of punctuation would 
be too rigid, and is not required for bringing out the sense. 



THE VERB UNDERSTOOD. 105 

d. When, too, in a series of clauses, each ellipsis is followed by a 
preposition or by the comparative as, the free style of pointing seems 
more appropriate ; as, "Mathematicians have sought knowledge in 
figures, philosophers in systems, Logicians in subtilties, and meta- 
physicians in sounds." 

e. If, however, obscurity would ai-ise, either in two clauses or 
in a series, from the omission of the comma, — as, for instance, 
when the preposition of is used, — the punctuation adopted in the 
examples under the rule must be followed. Thus : " Power reminds 
you of weakness ; permanency, of change ; life, of death ; light, of 
darkness; and the true, of the false." 

/. When lightness or vivacity characterizes the style, the free 
mode of pointing is preferable to the other, if no ambiguity would 
arise from its use, as in the following passage : " There is a magic in 
the sound of ' Stop thief! stop thief! ' The tradesman leaves his 
counter, and the carman his wagon; the butcher throws down 
his tray, the baker his basket, the milkman his pail, the errand- 
boy his parcels, the school-boy his marbles, the paver his pickaxe, 
the child his battledoor: away they run pellmell, helter-skelter." 



ORAL EXERCISES. 
Why, according to Rule XVII.. are commas inserted in these sentences? — 

Curiosity allures the wise ; vanity, the foolish ; and pleasure, both. 

The Grecians excelled in precepts ; the Romans, in examples. 

Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist. 

Passion overcomes shame ; boldness, fear; and madness, reason. 

Anger prompts men to contention ; avarice, to oppression. 

The benevolent man is esteemed ; the penurious, despised. 

A robber employs violence ; and a thief, cunning and guile. 

The young are slaves to novelty ; the old, to custom. 

War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. 

The Doric dialect was broad and rough ; the Ionic, smooth. 

Semiramis built Babylon ; Dido, Carthage ; and Romulus, Rome. 

Labor brings pleasure ; idleness, pain. 

Plants are formed by culture ; men, by education. 

One murder makes a villain ; millions, a hero. • 

Pleasant recollections promote cheerfulness; and painful ones, gloom, 

Crowns were the playthings of Napoleon ; thrones, his footstool. 

Truth belongs to the man ; error, to his age. 

Benevolence is allied to few vices ; selfishness, to fewer virtues. 



106 THE COMMA. 

Assign the reasons for iJie punctuation of the following sentences, agreeably to 
the Remarks (pp. 104-5): 

Our existence has no support, our life no aim, our spiritual weak- 
ness no power to lean upon, without God. 

Shakspeare was the greatest poet, Newton the most distinguished 
mathematician, that England ever produced. 

The coarse worm yields us a beautiful fly, and the thorny bush 
a lovely flower. 

The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive specula- 
tion, but those of Pope by minute attention. 

Shakspeare died in 1616, Milton in 1674, Dryden in 1700, Pope in 
1744, and Goldsmith in 1774. 

Bonaparte was a man of unbounded ambition ; and Washington, 
of disinterested patriotism. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Punctuate those sentences to which no references are given, in accordance with 
Rule XVII. ; and the others agreeably to the Remarks .- — 

The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by loftiness 
of thought; that of Dante by intensity of feeling. 

Concession is no humiliation nor admission of error any disgrace. 
(Remark c.) 

Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy; 
Aristotle most correctness. 

The sculptor sees a statue and the philosopher a principle, where, 
to the general eye, all is " without form,and void." (Remark b.) 

Homer's imagination is by much the most rich and copious; 
Virgil's the most chaste and correct. 

The cupola is taken from the human skull pillars from legs thatch- 
ing from hair and tiling from the scales of fish. (Remark d.) 

Reading maketh a full man ; conference a ready man ; and writing 
an exact man. 

Avarice must come to the hour of utter destitution and pride to 
the hour of utter prostration. (Remark c.) 

The quality the most difficult to be found in public situations is 
probity ; the least difficult confidence. 

Some men are eminent for what they possess some for what they 
achieve and others for what they are. (Remark d.) 

The first ingredient in conversation is truth : the next good sense ; 
the third good-humor ; and the fourth wit. 



THE VERB UNDERSTOOD. 107 

All our mental perceptions suggest their opposites, — the finite 
the infinite ; the seen the unseen ; time eternity ; creation a God. 

A pictured landscape recalls a familiar scene and a portrait a 
familiar countenance. (Eemark c.) 

Talent is full of thoughts; genius of thought. One has definite 
acquisitions ; the other indefinite power. 

Addison taught the intellect and fancy and Richardson the pas- 
sions, to move at the command of virtue. (Remark b or c.) 

Nature had no obstacles that he did not surmount; space no 
opposition that he did not spurn. 

Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy 
Aristotle most correctness, of judgment. (Remark b.) 

To mourn without measure is folly ; not to mourn at all insensi- 
bility. — Foresight is simple ; refrospect multiform. 

The young are slaves to novelty the old to custom the middle- 
aged to both the dead to neither. (Remark d.) 

Custom respects things which are done by the majority ; habit 
those which are done by individuals. 

A man's true prosperity often begins when he is said to be ruined 
and his ruin when he is said to be prospering. (Remark c.) 

Genius is the intuitive perception of what is ; moral sentiment 
the feeling of what ought to be. 

Chaucer most frequently describes things as they are Spenser as 
we wish them to be Shakspeare as they would be and Milton as they 
ought to be. (Remark d.) 

Delicacy leans more to feeling; correctness more to reason ana 
judgment. The former is the gift of nature ; the latter more the 
product of culture and art. 

Rashness is the error of youth ; and timid caution of age. — Hurry 
is the mark of a weak mind ; despatch of a strong one. (Rule, and 
Remark e.) 

All nature is but art, unknown to thee ; 
All chance direction which thou canst not see ; 
All discord harmony not understood ; 
All partial evil universal good. 

The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation and 
the fool when he recommends himself to the applause of those about 
him. (Remark c.) 

Fear urges us to action ; terror to flight. — The idle want steadi- 
ness of purpose ; the indolent power of exertion. — Children have 
understandings ; men intellect. 



108 THE COMMA. 

RULE XVIII. 

Clauses consisting of Short Quotations or Remarks. 

A short quotation, or any expression that resembles 
a quotation, is separated by a comma from the clause 
which precedes it. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Dr. Thomas Brown truly says, " The benevolent spirit is as universal in its 

efforts as the miseries which are capable of being relieved." 

2. One of the first lessons of a judicious education is, Learn to think and to 

discriminate. 

3. It may be laid down as a sacred maxim, that every man is wretched in 

proportion to his vices. 

REMAKES. 

a. By a short quotation is meant- a single sentence, containing the 
remark of another writer. By an expression resembling a quotation 
is indicated a remark, of some degree of importance, to which atten- 
tion is called in the introductory clause. Such a remark is not 
unfrequently preceded by the conjunction " that," as in the third 
example ; and, in these cases, the comma is usually inserted before 
the particle. 

b. Some writers annex a dash [ — J to the comma; but this is 
unnecessary, except before emphatic or long passages. If, however, 
quotations or remarks extend to two or more sentences, and are for 
mally or specially introduced, a colon is preferable. 

c. When an indirect quotation or a remark is preceded by a very 
brief clause, the comma is not required ; as, "Andrew says he loves 
me." — " I doubt not that mind is immortal." — " It is impossible that 
we should make Walter fully understand his ignorance." 

d. But, if the remark or quotation consists of phrases which require 
to be punctuated, a comma should precede the conjunction, even 
when the introductory part of the sentence is quite short ; as, " Ossian 
says, that sorrow, like a cloud on the sun, shaded the soul of Clessa- 
mour." A comma should also be inserted after the conjunction, if 
an inverted or an adverbial phrase begins the remark ; as, " It is 
certain, that, in the declension of taste and science, language will 
degenerate." The reason for the punctuation in such instances is, 
that the omission of the comma would bring the word " that " into 



SHORT QUOTATIONS. 109 

too close a contact wi:h that part of the sentence with which it has 
the least affinity. For the sentence is obviously divisible into two 
portions, less connected than others which require to be pointed; the 
first ending, in the former of these examples, with the verb " says," 
and, in the latter, with the adjective " certain." 

e. The comma may be omitted before that, when the clause on 
which the conjunction depends does not precede the remark, but is 
thrown in between its parts ; as, " In the ancient world, it is well 
known that the name of poet was the same as that of prophet." This 
omission takes place because a comma is put after the first portion 
of the sentence, and because the repetition of the point would tend to 
give a false view of the construction, and thereby obscure the sense. 

/. But when, in similar sentences, the conjunction is omitted, the 
comma should be substituted, agreeably to the principle adopted in 
parenthetical expressions ; as, " In the ancient world, it is well known, 
the name of poet was the same as that of prophet." — See page 64, 
Rule VIII. 

g. A clause which begins with what, when, where, if, or how, indi 
eating an indirect question or remark, is not usually separated from 
its antecedent clause; as, " Will no one tell me what she sings? " — 
" Revelation clearly informs us how we may obtain happiness." 



ORAL EXERCISES. 
Say why, according to Rule XV 111., the following sentences are punctuated: — 

Patrick Henry commenced by saying, " It is natural to man to 
indulge in the illusions of hope." 

The great and decisive test of genius is, that it calls forth power 
in the souls of others. 

I am not now to discuss the question, whether the souls of men 
are naturally equal. 

The very correct remark has been made, that " it is a great loss 
to lose an affliction." 

I reply, I do and must regard heaven as a world of intercourse 
and sympathy. 

His grand excellence was this, that he was a true man. — There 
is much in the proverb, " Without pains, no gains." 

Such seems to be the disposition of man, whatever makes a dis- 
tinction produces rivalry. 

It is a law of man's nature, that he should endeavor to act before 
hand the part to which he is destined in a higher state of being. 



110 THE COMMA. 

How do the preceding Remarks (pp. 108-9) apply to the insertion or the omission 
of commas in the sentences that follow V — 

St. John says that God is love. — Swift asserts that no man ever 
wished himself younger. 

Every one knows James is a very prolific writer. — I trust you 
feel the importance of the subject. 

It cannot be questioned, that we are, as yet, only in the rudiments 
of the great science of education. 

Wirt writes, that, as a statesman, Alexander Hamilton was dis- 
tinguished for the great extent of his views. 

Ere another day pass, I hope that you will find yourself surrounded 
by your wife and children. 

By the sweat of our brow, I say, we have to earn the little which 
we possess. 

We all know how a man of mighty genius can impart himself to 
other minds. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert commas or not between the clauses of the following sentences, in accord- 
ance with the eighteenth Rule and the Remarks .- — 

Seneca tells us " There is a settled friendship, nay, a near relation 
and similitude, between God and good men." (Rule.) 

In the great science of society, it must be confessed that we have 
much to learn. (Remark e.) 

They know not what they say who cry out " Let us build taber- 
nacles of rest." (Rule.) 

Thou knowest that virtue can never be despoiled of its deathless 
crown. (Remark c.) 

It may be laid down as an unfailing and universal axiom that 
" all pride is abject and mean." (Rule.) 

We know it is wrong. — I tell you that I have not your book. - • 
He said she bought it. (Remark c.) 

The true ennoblement of our nature consists in the feeling that 
our existence stretches beyond the bounds of this globe. (Rule.) 

It is well known what strange work there has been in the world, 
under the name and pretence of reformation. (Remark g.) 

Thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of Babylon, and 
say " How hath the oppressor ceased ! " (Rule.) 

In the din and bustle of business, it may be the voice of conscience 
and duty speaks unheard. (Remark f.) 



SHORT QUOTATIONS. Ill 

I say unto all "Watch. — It is a true saying that we are never too 
old to be taught. (Rule.) 

Coleridge said he had the habit of seeking for the " good and 
beautiful " in all his eyes beheld. (Remark c.) 

There is no foundation for the popular doctrine that a state may 
flourish by arts and crimes. (Rule.) 

Some dream that they can silence, when they will, 

The storm of passion, and say "Peace, be still." (Rem. c, and Rule.) 

It has long been a subject of inquiry -whether there existed in 
nature a universal language. (Rule.) 

Keep it in view that the great object of study is to fit the mind 
to be an instrument of usefulness in life. (Rule.) 

It is not enough that we have great qualities : we must also have 
the management of them. (Remark c.) 

A celebrated modern writer says " Take care of the minutes, 
and the hours will take care of themselves." (Rule.) 

"We affirm that, without some portion of enthusiasm, no person 
ever became a true poet or painter. (Remark d, second sentence.) 

It was said of Socrates that he brought philosophy down from 
heaven to dwell among men. (Rule.) 

I may say that, of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten 
are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. 
(Remark d, second sentence.) 

Tell me when was it that you felt yourself most strongly inclined 
to go astray ? — Tell me when it was that you felt yourself most 
strongly inclined to go astray. (Rule, and Remark g.) 

It is one among the pious and valuable maxims which are 
ascribed to Francis de Sales " A judicious silence is always better 
than truth spoken without charity." (Rule.) 

In delineating the character of Dr. Bowditch, it deserves to be 
mentioned that he was eminently a self-taught and self-made man. 
(Remark e.) 

Let me ask you are your resolutions as firm as when you first set 
out in the spiritual fife ? — Let me ask you if your resolutions are as 
firm, &c. (Rule, and Remark g.) 

The poet Gray, one of the most intellectual and fastidious of 
men, says " Happy they who can create a rose-tree, or erect a 
honeysuckle!" (Rule.) 

Thou knowest that principle, grounded in the eternal laws of 
mind and emanating from the unchangeable essence of God, cannot 
perish. (Rule, and first of Remark d.) 



112 THE COMMA. 

RULE XIX. 
Numeral Figures and Words. 

With the exception of dates, figures consisting of four 
or more characters are pointed with a comma before 
every three from the end, or between each class of 
hundreds. 

EXAMPLE. 

The population of China in 1743, according to the French missionaries., 
was 150,029,855} in 1825, according to Dr. Morrison, 352,866,002. 

REMARKS. 

a. Properly speaking, the comma, as here used, is neither a gram- 
matical nor a rhetorical point ; but, for the easy understanding of 
the value of sums, it is exceedingly useful. The rule is inserted in 
this place, merely because a more appropriate situation could not 
be found for it in the book. 

b. When put in words, numbers are usually left unpointed ; as, to 
take the first calculation in the example, " The population of China 
in 1743 was fifteen millions twenty-nine thousand eight hundred and 
fifty-five." 

c. When round numbers are used, and no comparison is made 
between one sum and another, words are preferable to figures ; as, 
"According to Balbi, the entire population of Africa is thirty-nine 
millions." 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Punctuate the figures, except those expressive of dates .- — 

The sun is 883210 miles in diameter, about 2774692 miles in 
circumference, and distant from the earth about 95000000 of miles. 

The Rocky Mountains rise 12500 feet above the level of the 
ocean ; the Andes, 21440 feet. 

On April 17, 1790, Dr. Franklin died at Philadelphia, aged eighty- 
four, and bequeathed $4444 to the people of Boston, for the benefit 
of young married artificers. 

Population of the city of New York in 1790 was 33131; in 1800, 
60489; in 1810, 96373; in 1820, 123706; in 1830, 202589; in 1840, 
312710; in 1850, 515507. 



113 



Sect. II. — THE SEMICOLON. 



The Semicolon [ ; ] is used to separate such parts 
of a sentence as are somewhat less closely connected 
than those separated by a comma. 

RULE I. 
A Sentence consisting of Two Conjoined Clauses. 

When two clauses are united by either of the con- 
junctions for, but, and, or an equivalent word, — the 
one clause perfect in itself, and the other added as a 
matter of inference, contrast, or explanation, — they 
are separated by a semicolon. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a 

great deal. 

2. Genius breaks from tbe fetters of criticism ; but its wanderings are sanc- 

tioned by its majesty and wisdom. 

3. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth; and it has ever been 

esteemed a presage of rising merit. 

KEMAEKS. 

a. When a conjunction unites two clauses incapable of being 
subdivided by a comma, in the last of which the nominative is 
understood, the insertion of a comma between the clauses is prefer- 
able to that of the semicolon. Thus, were the nominative " it," in 
the third example, omitted, the sentence would be punctuated as 
follows : " Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth, and has 
ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit." — See page 98. 

b. When a sentence consists of three or more clauses, united by a 
conjunction, none of which are susceptible of division, a semicolon 



114 THE SEMICOLON. 

should be put between those which are least connected in sense, 
and a comma only between the others ; as, " The woods may dis- 
appear, but the spirit of them will never now; for it has been felt 
by a poet, and we can feel for ever what he felt." 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

Repeat the preceding Definition and Rule, and say why semicolons are inserted 
in the following sentences : — 

All cannot be great ; and nobody may reasonably expect all the 
world to be engaged with lauding his merits. 

Idleness is the parent of every vice ; but well-directed activity is 
the source of every laudable pursuit and worldly attainment. 

Examinations are formidable even to the best prepared ; for the 
greatest fool may ask more than the wisest man can answer. 

An entire retreat from worldly affairs is not what religion requires ; 
nor does it even enjoin a long retreat from them. 

Eeligion must be the spirit of every hour ; but it cannot be the 
meditation of every hour. 

A clownish air is but a small defect ; yet it is enough to make a 
man disagreeable. 

We have carved a cross upon our altars ; but the smoke of our 
sacrifice goes up to Thor and Odin still. 

Seasoning implies doubt and uncertainty ; and therefore God does 
not reason. 

Endless existence is a great truth; but an immortality of pure 
affections and holy employments is far greater. 

Men must have recreation; and literature and art furnish that 
which is most pure, innocent, and refining. 

Do not think yourself perfect; for imperfection is natural to 
humanity. 

Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden; but Dryden cer- 
tainly wanted the diligence of Pope. 

Life is felt to be a great and gracious boon by all who enjoy its 
light ; and this is not too much felt. 

'Never value yourself upon your fortune ; for this is the sign of a 
weak mind. 

Virtue is a real honor ; whereas all other distinctions are merely 

titular. 

Distracted and surprised with deep dismay 
At these sad tidings ; but no time was then 
For long indulgence to their tears or grief. 



TWO CONJOINED CLAUSES. 115 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Let the following sentences be punctuated agreeably to the preceding Rule and 
Remarks : — 

Make a proper use of your time for the loss of it can never be 
regained. 

Truth will pass down in fragments to posterity but posterity will 
collect and compose them into a whole. 

Ivy is the beauty of old ruins and your faith is not unlike it for 
it springs up so strongly from amidst fallen hopes. (Kemark b.) 

Mere knowledge may be idle but belief and love will, and must, 
go forth in action. 

He is a freeman whom the truth makes free 
And all are slaves beside. 

Chaucer followed nature every where but never went beyond her. 
(Kemark a.) 

Good and evil are inseparable companions but the latter often 
hides behind the back of the former. 

Liberal dealing is better than almsgiving for it tends to prevent 
pauperism, which is better than to relieve it. 

The proud have no friends in prosperity for then they know no- 
body and none in adversity for then no one knows them. (Rem. b.) 

Property left to a child may soon be lost but the inheritance of 
virtue will abide for ever. 

Outward suffering is the lot of human nature and it is cheering 
to see it bravely borne even on the battle-field. 

A good conscience is a continual feast and proves a spring of joy 
amidst the greatest distresses. (Eemark a.) 

The study of truth is perpetually joined with the love of virtue 
for there is no virtue which derives not its original from truth. 

A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to atheism but depth in 
philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion. 

Infidelity is not always built upon doubt for this is diffident nor 
philosophy always upon wisdom for this is meek. (Eemark b.) 

Some persons make a long story short but most persons make a 
short story long. — Scott built a castle but he broke his heart. 

We promise according to our hopes but perform according to our 
fears. (Eemark a.) 

The esteem of wise and good men is the greatest of all temporal 
encouragements tc virtue and it is the mark of an abandoned spirit 
to have no regard to it 



116 THE SEMICOLON. 

RULE II. 

Expressions divided into Simpler Parts. 

A semicolon is placed between two or more parts of 
a sentence, when these, or any of them, are divisible 
by a comma into smaller portions. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; but by 

the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works. 

2. The noblest prophets and apostles have been children once; lisping the 

speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought, of boyhood. 
8. As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not perceive it moving ; 
so our advances in learning, as they consist of such minute steps, are 
perceivable only by the distance. 

REMARKS. 

a. It is obvious, that, if the smaller portions of a sentence require 
to be separated by a comma from each other, the construction and 
sense of the whole passage will be more readily perceived, if the 
larger divisions are set apart by the insertion of a point indicating a 
less intimate connection. This will show the propriety of putting 
a semicolon, in the first example, between the negative and the 
affirmative portion of the sentence ; in the second, between the clause 
and the series of phrases ; and, in the third, between the members. 

b. When, however, in a sentence resolvable into two or more larger 
portions that require to be separated by a semicolon, the last ends 
with a series of phrases, of which only the final one is capable of 
subdivision, the comma will usually be found sufficient to distinguish 
all the final terms. Thus : " As, with a small telescope, a few feet in 
length and breadth, man learns to survey heavens beyond heavens, 
almost infinite ; so, with the aid of limited senses and faculties, does 
he rise to the conception of what is beyond all visible heavens, 
beyond all conceivable time, beyond all imagined power, beauty, and 
glory:'' 

c. When the insertion of a semicolon would tend to break up the 
harmony or the dependencies of the thought expressed, the larger 
portions of a sentence, though its smaller parts are susceptible of 
being grammatically divided, should be separated only by a comma, 



EXPRESSIONS DIVIDED INTO PARTS. 117 

as in the following passage : " Like one of those wondrous rocking 
gtones reared by the Druids, which the finger of a child might vibrate 
to its centre, yet the might of an army could not move from its 
place, | our Constitution is so nicely poised and balanced, that it 
seems to sway with every breath of opinion, yet so firmly rooted 
in the heart and affections of the people, that the wildest storms of 
treason and fanaticism break over it in vain." This sentence, though 
containing seven grammatical parts, or pointed groups of words, is 
divisible into two main portions, the first ending with the word 
"place;" but these larger portions cannot be more separated from 
each other than the smaller ones, because they are so compactly and 
finely bound together, that any other mark than a comma would 
tend to loosen then." connection, and to mar the unity which runs 
throughout the whole passage. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 
Assign the reason for the insertion of semicolons in the following sentences : — 

Prosperity is naturally, though not necessarily, attached to virtue 
and merit ; adversity, to vice and folly. 

The furnace of affliction may be fierce ; but, if it refineth thy soul, 
the good of one meek thought shall outweigh years of torment. 

Eveiy thing that happens is both a cause and an effect ; being the 
effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows. 

There is a fierce conflict of good and evil throughout the universe ; 
but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last. 

Argument, as usually managed, is the worst sort of conversation ; 
as it is generally, in books, the worst sort of reading. 

The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn; and Egypt, 
Greece, Kome, Gaul, Britain, America, lie folded already in the 
first man. 

He was respectful, not servile, to superiors ; affable, not improperly 
familiar, to equals ; and condescending, not supercilious, to those 
beneath him. 

The little, bleak farm, sad and affecting in its lone and extreme 
simplicity, smiled like the paradise of poverty; when the lark, lured 
thither by some green barley-field, rose ringing over the solitude. 

As a malicious censure, craftily worded and pronounced with 
assurance, is apt to pass with mankind for shrewd wit; so a virulent 
maxim in bold expressions, though without any justness of thought, 
is readily received for true philosophy. 



118 THE SEMICOLON. 

It is the first point of wisdom to ward off evils ; the second, to 
make them beneficial. 

The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a perpetual smile ; 
and eyes, through which shine the light of other worlds, are often 
dimmed with tears. 

The golden rule is a protest against selfishness ; and selfishness, 
cleaving as it does to the inmost core of our being, is the besetting 
sin of the world. 

Books are standing counsellors and preachers, always at hand, 
and always disinterested; having this advantage over oral instructors, 
that they are ready to repeat their lesson as often as we please. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Agreeably to the Rule (p. 116), insert semicolons in the following 1 sentences: — ■ 

By granting that intellectual improvement was unfavorable to 
productions of the imagination, we should look to the least culti 
vated minds for bolder flights than to Milton, Pope, or Byron the 
absurdity of which is seen by the mere statement of it. 

Wordsworth, in his poetry, works out wisdom as it comes from 
the common heart of man, and appeals to that heart in turn causing 
us to recognize the truth, that there is something in humanity which 
deserves alike our love and reverence. 

The most precious of all possessions is power over ourselves powei 
to withstand trial, to bear suffering, to front danger power over plea 
sure and pain power to follow our convictions, however resisted bj 
menace and scorn the power of calm reliance in scenes of darkness 
and storms. 

There, cold and lifeless, is the heart which just now was the seat 
of friendship there, dim and sightless, is the eye whose radiant and 
enlivening orb beamed with intelligence and there, closed for ever, 
are those lips on whose persuasive accents we have so often and so 
lately hung with transport. 

But who the melodies of morn can tell? — 

The wild brook, babbling down the mountain-side 

The lowing herd the sheepfold's simple bell 

The pipe of early shepherd, dim descried 

In the lone valley echoing far and wide, 

The clamorous horn along the cliffs above 

The hollow murmur of the ocean-tide 

The hum of bees the linnet's lay of love 
And the full choir that wakes the universal grove. 



EXPRESSIONS DIVIDED INTO PARTS. 119 

Insert commas and semicolons in the following- sentences, where they are required 
by the references : — 

Be not anxious impatient over-inquisitive but thoughtful serious 
and calm. (Page 116, Kule; and p. 37, Rule.) 

If ever Christianity appears in its power it is when it erects its 
trophies upon the tomb when it takes up its votaries where the world 
leaves them and fills the breast with immortal hope in dying mo- 
ments. (Page 116, Rule; p. 89, Rule and d; p. 98, Rule.) 

When we look up to heaven and behold the sun shining in glory 
or the moon and the stars walking in brightness untaught nature 
prompts us to adore Him that made them to bow down and worship 
in the temple not made with hands. (Page 116, Remark c; p. 98.) 

Every particle of dust every grain of sand every minutest atom 
is an active agent in the mighty whole making itself felt through 
all the masses in our solar system and through this on all systems 
in the universe. (Rule, p. 116; and Rule, p. 98.) 

When the virtuous father of a family stands before us great in 
native worth of soul amidst all the outward tokens of poverty and 
an humble calling what a feeling of honor and sympathy goes forth 
spontaneously from our hearts to greet that truest expression of 
human respectability! (Page 116, Remark c ; p. 64; p. 79, h.) 

As we trust the long-tried affection of a human friend when for 
reasons satisfactory to him he now and then withholds from us his 
ultimate purposes so pious souls acquiescing in ignorance and con 
scious of absolute dependence on the Parent Mind dissolve their 
fears and their doubts in perfect faith. (Page 116, Rule; p. 89, Rule 
and d; and p. 64.) 

There also are the eloquence the literature the poetry of all times 
and tongues, — those glorious efforts of genius that rule with a never- 
dying sway over our sympathies and affections commanding our 
smiles and tears kindling the imagination warming the heart filling 
the fancy with beauty and awing the soul with the sublime the ter- 
rible the powerful the infinite. (Page 116, Rule and b; pp. 37, 57, 
64, 98.) 

Though sometimes on passing from the turmoil of the city and 
the heats of restless life into the open temple of the silent universe 
we are tempted to think that there is the taint of earth and here the 
purity of heaven yet sure it is that God is seen by us through man 
rather than through nature and that without the eye of our brother 
and the voices of our kind the winds might sigh and the stars look 
down on us in vain. (Page 116, Rule; p. 64; p. 98, Rule and 6.) 



120 THE SEMICOLON. 

RULE HI. 

A Series of Expressions having a Common Dependence. 

When, in a series of expressions! the particulars 
depend on a commencing or a concluding portion of 
the sentence, they should be separated from each other 
by a semicolon, if they are either laid down as distinct 
propositions, or are of a compound nature. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that 
she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be 
progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, 
of which we have not the slightest idea. 

2. To give an early preference to honor above gain, when they stand in 
competition ; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without 
dishonest arts ; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no dissimulation, — - are 
the indications of a great mind, the presages of future eminence and usefulness 
in life. 

3. If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the 
purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of morals 
without a stain ; of religious feelings without intolerance and without extra- 
vagance, — the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation 
of all these ideas. 

REMARKS. 

a. The first sentence exemplifies a series of clauses, being each a 
distinct proposition, but depending all on the words that precede 
them, namely, "philosophers assert." The second example illus- 
trates a series of expressions, the first two consisting each of a 
phrase and a clause; the third, of two coupled phrases; and all 
depending on the portion which concludes the sentence, — on the 
predicate, " are the indications of a great mind," &c. The third 
example exhibits a series of phrases, which, according to Rule XVI., 
p. 98, would be punctuated only with a comma, were it not for the 
compound phrase, "of the highest integrity, public and private," 
the subdivision of which requires to be distinguished by a point less 
significant than that between the other phrases. 

b. Commas are sometimes preferable to semicolons, when none of 
the particulars in a series of clauses, except perhaps the last, are 



SERIES OF EXPRESSIONS. 121 

divisible into simpler portions. This mode of punctuation should be 
adopted when the particulars begin each with a verb, and have a 
common nominative on which they depend, as in the following pas- 
sage : " Poetry | reveals to us the loveliness of nature, brings back 
the freshness of early feeling, revives the relish of simple pleasures, 
keeps unquenched the enthusiasm which warmed the spring-time of 
our being, refines youthful love, strengthens our interest in human 
nature by vivid delineations of its tenderest and loftiest feeli»gs, 
spreads our sympathies over all classes of society, knits us by new 
ties with universal being, and, through the brightness of its prophetic 
visions, he tys faith to lay hold on the future life." — See page 98. 

c. If a series of phrases, of which some at least are compound, 
though none of them parts of clauses, depends on the commencing 
or the concluding portion of a sentence, and any of them are capable 
of being subdivided by means of a comma, all the depending portions 
should be separated from each other by a semicolon ; as, " By doing, 
or at least endeavoring to do, our duty to God and man ; by acquiring 
an humble trust in the mercy and favor of God, through Jesus Christ; 
by cultivating our minds, and properly employing our time and 
thoughts ; by correcting all unreasonable expectations from the world 
and from men; and, in the midst of worldly business, habituating 
ourselves to calm retreat and serious recollection, — by such means 
as these, it may be hoped, that, through the divine blessing, our days 
shall flow in a stream as unruffled as the human state admits." 

d. Accordingly, such phrases as those which occur in the following 
sentence, though dependent on another expression, are punctuated 
better by the comma : " The world is still renewed with fresh life 
and beauty, with a constant succession of trees and plants, with a 
new race of animals, with a new generation of men." 

e. Some punctuators insert a dash, instead of a semicolon or a 
comma, between clauses or phrases dependent on other expressions. 
But, though it is not denied that in the more rhetorical kind of such 
sentences, this mark may be adopted, the semicolon or the comma is 
usually preferable, because the frequent recurrence of dashes, thence 
ensuing, would be unpleasant to the eye, without affording a propor- 
tionate aid to the understanding, and would mar the effect which 
they have when properly and necessarily used. 

f. The dash, however, appended to a comma, as in the second and 
third examples under the rule, is suitably put after the last particular, 
that the relation of all the particulars to the portion on which they 
depend may be more clearly shown. — See Chap. TJJ., Sect. III. 



122 THE SEMICOLON. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

Show how the Rule (p. 120) may be applied to the insertion of the semicolons in 
the following sentences : — 

To have even our earthly being extended in everlasting remem- 
brance ; to be known wherever the name of virtue can reach ; and to 
be known as the benefactors of every age, by the light which we have 
diffused, or the actions which we have performed or prompted, — who 
is there that does not feel some desire of this additional immortality ? 

Is there any splendor to be found in distant travels beyond that 
which sets its morning throne in the golden east ; any dome sublimer 
than that of heaven ; any beauty fairer than that of the verdant and 
blossoming earth ; any place, though invested with all the sanctities 
of old time, like that home which is hushed and folded within the 
embrace of the humblest wall and roof? 

Leighton is great by the magnificence of thought ; by the sponta- 
neous emanations of a mind replete with sacred knowledge, and 
bursting with seraphic affections ; by that pauseless gush of intel- 
lectual splendor, in which the outward shell, the intermediate letter, 
is eclipsed and almost annihilated, that full scope may be given to 
the mighty effulgence of the informing spirit. 

Happy, thrice happy, he who relies on the eternity of the soul; 
who believes, as the loved fall one after one from his side, that they 
have returned to their native country ; who feels that each treasure 
of knowledge he attains, he carries with him through illimitable 
being ; who sees in virtue the essence and the element of the world 
he is to inherit. 

There are men whose powers operate in leisure and in retirement, 
and whose intellectual vigor deserts them in conversation ; whom 
merriment confuses, and objection disconcerts; whose bashfulness 
restrains their exertion, and suffers them not to speak till the time 
of speaking is past ; or whose attention to their own character makes 
them unwilling to utter at hazard what has not been considered, and 
cannot be recalled. 

That benevolence which prompted Jesus to incessant exertion; 
which supported him through unparalleled suffering; which was 
alike the soul of his discourses, his actions, and his miracles ; which 
shone through his life and his death; whose splendors were around 
his brow when he expired on the cross, and when he sat down on 
the right hand of the Majesty on high, — what is it but a glorious 
revelation of the glorious truth, that God is love ? 



SERIES OF EXPRESSIONS. 123 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert semicolons or commas between the particulars of each series in these 
sentences , in accordance with the Rule and Remarks (pp. 120-21) : — 

The great tendency and purpose of poetry is to carry the mind 
above and beyond the beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life 
to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more profound 
and generous emotion. (Rule, and Remark c.) 

He was framed to enjoy equally the fire of poetic or the abstruse- 
ness of philosophical writings to watch the meteor-flash of oratory 
or to trace in history's page the even course of milder eloquence. 
(Remark d.) 

Benevolence remembers the slave pleads his cause with God and 
man recognizes in him a human brother l-espects in him the sacred 
rights of humanity and claims for him, not as a boon but as a right, 
that freedom without which humanity withers, and God's child is 
degraded into a tool or a brute. (Remark b.) 

If thou hast never tasted the holy peace which descends into the 
simplest heart, when it fervently realizes the presence of God if no 
gleam from the future life ever brightens thy earthly way if the 
sores and irritations of thy contact with the world are never soothed 
and softened by the healing consciousness of a divine love, — thou 
hast studied to little purpose, and the fountains of a true happiness 
are yet sealed up to thee. (Rule.) 

The bad phenomenon of character, which is mainly to be traced 
to impulse, is that of uncertainty of a being on whom no dependence 
can be placed who is driven hither and thither by every wind that 
blows who receives impressions one day from one quarter, another 
day from another who has neither fixed principles in his intellect, 
nor harmony and consistency in his conduct. (Rule.) 

No matter in what language the stranger's doom may have been 
pronounced no matter what complexion, incompatible with freedom, 
an Indian or an African sun may have burned upon him no matter 
in what disastrous battle his liberty may have been cloven down no 
matter with what solemnities he may have been devoted upon the 
altar of slavery, — the first moment he touches the sacred soil of 
Britain, the altar and the god sink together in the dust his soul 
walks abroad in her own majesty his body swells beyond the 
measure of his chains, that burst from around him and he stands 
redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled by the irresistible Genius 
of Universal Emancipation. (Rules, pp. 120, 116. } 



124 THE SEMICOLON. 

Let the following paragraphs be punctuated throughout, in consistency with 

the Rule and Remarks (pp. 120-21), and with preceding portions of the 

work : — 

Wherever on this earth an understanding is active to know and 
serve the truth wherever a heart beats with kind and pure and gene- 
rous affections wherever a home spreads its sheltering wing over 
husband and wife and parent and child — there under every diver- 
sity of outward circumstance the true worth and dignity and peace 
of man's soul are within reach of all. 

In the light of beauty that floats over the changing aspects of the 
material universe in the grand interpreting thought which pervades 
the broken story of the ages and translates it into coherency in the 
spirit which comes to you from the smiles of gladness and the tears 
of sorrow and softens your heart in genial sympathy with human 
weal and human woe in the interchange of ideas which kindles 
enthusiasm and draws a higher meaning and purpose out of life — 
acknowledge realities which transcend the limits of sense own a 
spiritual world whose mysteries encompass you on every side by 
whose laws you are bound and in whose issues of endless unfolding 
you are yourself perhaps destined to be involved. 

Those who have shone in all ages as the lights of the world the 
most celebrated names that are recorded hi the annals of fame 
legislators the founders of states and the fathers of their country 
on whom succeeding ages have looked back with filial reverence 
patriots the guardians of the laws who have stemmed the torrent of 
corruption in every age heroes the saviours of their country who 
have returned victorious from the field of battle or more than victo 
rious who have died for their country philosophers who have opened 
the book of nature and explained the wonders of almighty power 
bards who have sung the praises of virtue and of virtuous men 
whose strains carry them down to immortality — with a few excep 
tions have been uniformly on the side of goodness and have been as 
distinguished in the temple of fame. It was one of the maxims 
which governed their lives that there is nothing in nature which can 
compensate wickedness that although the rewards and punishments 
which influence illiberal and ungenerous minds were set aside that 
although the thunders of the Almighty were hushed and the gates 
of paradise were open no more they would follow religion and virtue 
for their own sake and co-operate with eternal Providence in per- 
petual endeavors to favor the good to depress the bad and to 
promote the happmess of the whole creation. 



SENTENCES SLIGHTLY CONNECTED. 125 

RULE IV. 

Short Sentences slightly Connected. 

When several short sentences follow one another, 
slightly connected in sense or in construction, they 
should be separated by a semicolon. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Stones grow ; vegetables grow and live ; animals grow, live, and feel. 

2. Every thing grows old; every thing passes away; every thing disappears. 

3. She presses her child to her heart ; she drowns it in her tears ; her fancy 

catches more than an angel's tongue could describe. 

REMARKS. 

a. Without instituting any comparison between the merits of a 
concise and a diffuse style of composition, — which, indeed, is out of 
our province, — we may observe, that a printed page, when crowded 
with short sentences, and having, in consequence, a great number 
of capitals and large spaces, is offensive to the eye. As a matter of 
taste, therefore, as well as of propriety, it is recommended, that, 
wherever a number of short successive sentences are evidently 
allied to one another in thought, expression, or construction, as in 
the examples under the rule, semicolons be substituted for full 
points. 

b. In poetry very often occur short sentences which could not 
be separated by a full point, witbout destroying the connection 
which subsists between them ; for, hampered by the peculiar struc- 
ture of verse, and more attentive to the fineness of his thoughts, the 
harmony of his numbers, and the appropriateness of his imagery, 
*han to any regular train of ideas, the poet is frequently obliged to 
omit the connecting and disjunctive particles, so useful in prose 
composition in knitting together parts of sentences which are closely 
related in sense, and in separating those which are distinct. Espe- 
cially in the more common kinds of verse, consisting of stanzas 
regularly formed, as used in songs, ballads, and hymns, it is better 
to point the sentences, of which they consist, with semicolons or 
colons, according to their various relations, except wbere the dis- 
tinctions in thought and expression are prominent; for, in all sucb 
cases, periods must be used. 



126 THE SEMICOLON. 

c. When, in a series of short sentences, each particular is con- 
structed exactly alike, and the last is preceded by the conjunction 
and, the separation may be indicated by a comma, instead of a semi- 
colon, agreeably to the rule on page 98 ; as, " The pride of wealth is 
contemptible, the pride of learning is pitiable, the pride of dignity 
is ridiculous, and the pride of bigotry is insupportable." 



ORAL EXERCISE, 
What is the reason for the insertion of semicolons rn these sentences ? — 

The wind and rain are over; calm is the noon of day; the clouds 
are divided in heaven; over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 

The old men sit at their doors ; the gossip leans over her counter ; 
the children shout and frolic in the streets. 

There is good for the good ; there is virtue for the faithful ; there 
is victory for the valiant ; there is spirituality for the spiritual. 

The evidences of religion have been collected ; its doctrines have 
been elucidated ; the attacks of its enemies have been repelled ; the 
morals of its professors, upon the whole, have been purified. 

When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity ; when he 
describes, we expect embellishment ; when he decides or relates, we 
desire plainness and simplicity. 

The Christian orator speaks the truth plainly to his hearers ; he 
awakens them; he shows them their impending danger; he excites 
them to action. 

The temples are profaned; the soldier's curse resounds in the 
house of God; the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs; 
horses neigh beside the altar. 

The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents 
a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of man- 
kind; pastoral poetry describes rural life; and elegy displays the 
tender emotions of the heart. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

We pay no homage at the tomb of kings to sublime our feelings ; 
we trace no line of illustrious ancestors to support our dignity; we 
recur to no usages, sanctioned by the authority of the great, to 
protract our rejoicing. No: we love liberty; we glory in the rights 
of men ; we glory in independence. 



SENTENCES SLIGHTLY CONNECTED. 127 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Separate these short sentences by means of semicolons, in accordance with the 
Rule and Remarks (p. 125) : — 

He is poor perhaps his plans have been defeated he finds it diffi- 
cult to provide for the exigencies of life sickness is permitted to 
invade the quiet of his household long confinement imprisons his 
activity. 

"When we read a classical poet, we feel as if we had entered a 
marble temple, where a cool silence reigns a few quiet statues 
gleam around us, pure and naked a few short inscriptions tell of the 
deeds of heroes all is calm, grand, and simple, to the highest per- 
fection of art. 

There is a pleasure in the pathless -woods 

There is a rapture on the lonely shore 

There is society, where none intrudes, 

By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 

The world is fair around thee the bright and blessed sun shineth 
on thee the green and flowery fields spread far, and cheer thine eye, 
and invite thy footstep the groves are full of melody ten thousand 
creatures range freely through all the paths of nature : but thou art 
not satisfied as they are. 

Genius, mental power, has surrounded your homes with comfort 
it has given you the command of the blind forces of matter it has 
exalted and consecrated your affections it has brought God's immea- 
surable universe nearer to your hearts and imaginations it has made 
flowers of paradise spring up even in poor men's gardens. 

It is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because that is to excel 
many others it is pleasant to grow better, because that is to excel our- 
selves it is pleasant to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that 
is victory it is pleasant to command our appetites and passions, 
and to keep them in due order within the bounds of reason and 
religion, because that is empire. 

Saints have established our religion by their lives martyrs have 
confirmed it by their deaths hypocrites have added strength to it 
by then- dissimulation tyrants have purified it by their persecutions 
infidels have corroborated it by their opposition the arrows of its 
enemies have served for its protection the resistance which it has 
met with from the combined wit and genius and malice of mankind 
have brought forth those illustrious and immortal defences which 
establish its truth upon the basis of demonstration. 



128 



THE SEMICOLON. 



RULE V. 
Lists of Words, Phrases, and Numbers. 

A semicolon is put before as, viz., to wit, namely, 
i. e., or that is, when they precede an example or a 
specification of particulars, or subjects enumerated ; 
and also between these particulars, when they consist 
each of a disjunct pair of words, or of a single word or 
phrase but slightly connected with the others. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Many words are differently spelled in English ; as, " Inquire, enquire ; jail, 

gaol; sceptic, skeptic." 

2. To Greece we are indebted for the three principal orders of architecture ; 

namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. 

3. De Quincey's Philosophical Writers, 2 vols. Vol. 1. Hamilton ; Mackin- 

tosh ; Kant ; Herder ; Richter ; Lessing. Vol. 2. Bentley ; Parr. 

BEMAEK, 

When as, namely, that is, &c, with the terms after them, are used 
parenthetically, they should be preceded only by a comma; as, 
" The word ' reck,' that is, care, denotes a stretching of the mind.'' 
— " Of the three cardinal virtues, namely, faith, hope, and charity, 
the greatest is charity." — See pp. 64, 72. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 
Say why semicolons are used in the following sentences : — 

The inseparable preposition pre is derived from the Latin prce; 
as in " prefix, prejudice, predetermine." 

Some men distinguish the period of the world into four ages ; viz., 
the golden age, the silver age, the brazen age, and the iron age. 

Logicians say that the operations of the mind are three ; namely, 
1. Simple apprehension ; 2. Judgment; 3. Discourse, or reasoning. 

Our duties to individuals are classed under four heads; viz., as 
arising from affinity ; friendship ; benefits received ; contract. 

Find the increase in the population from 1790 to 1800 ; to 1810 ; 
1820; 1830; 1840; 1850; from 1800 to 1810; 1810 to 1850. 



129 



Sect. III. — THE COLON. 



The Colon [ : ] is used in a sentence between 
parts less connected than those which are divided by a 
semicolon, but not so independent as separate, distinct 
sentences. 

REMARKS. 

a. It is to be regretted that some grammarians have expressed a 
wish to discard the use of the colon, and that others have ventured 
even to expel it from their systems of punctuation. But, though in 
former times it was common to employ this point where the semi- 
colon or the period might have been more serviceable, there are in 
composition well-ascertained cases in whioh the insertion of the 
colon tends to bring out the idea of a writer with greater facility. 
The truth of this remark may be tested by a comparison of the sen- 
tences which will now be exhibited to illustrate the proper use of the 
colon, with those which have been cited in pp. 113-28 in exempli- 
fication of the semicolon, and with others, of a different character, 
requiring the period, which will be treated of in the next section. 

b. On the other hand, some writers are accustomed to insert 
colons between clauses or phrases, where, both from the construction 
and the sense, semicolons should be used. Thus, in a work recently 
published, which, though remarkable for the excellence of its thoughts 
and the beauty of its style, is very inaccurately punctuated, the 
larger portions of the following passages are separated by the colon, 
instead of the semicolon : " There are sorrows that affect a more 
private sphere of action: and these, too, have their appropriate 
compensations." — "We must not violate the first principles of 
eternal reason : we must not disregard those instinctive promptings 
of our spiritual nature which are as much fundamental realities of 
our being, and as essential conditions of all truth, as the principles 
of reason itself: and, in our earnest efforts to find out God and 
understand his ways, we must admit no view inconsistent with the 
highest notion that we can form of a perfect Spirit." 

9 



130 THE COLON. 

RULE I. 
Two Clauses not joined by a Conjunction, 

A colon should be put after a clause that is complete 
in itself, but is followed, without a conjunction, by some 
remark, inference, or illustration. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Virtue is too lovely and useful to be imruured iu a cell : the world is her 

sphere of action. 

2. Nor was the religion of the Greek drama a mere form : it was full of truth, 

spirit, and power. 
8. In business there is something more than barter, exchange, price, pay- 
ment : there is a sacred faith of man in man. 

REMARKS. 

a. The chief difference between this rule and that on page 113 
is, that the semicolon is used between two clauses when they are 
united by a conjunction, and the colon when the particle is omitted. 
Thus, — 

Avoid affectation ; for it is a contemptible weakness. 
Avoid affectation : it is a contemptible weakness. 

In many cases, however, the insertion of the connective would 
injure the beauty or force of the sentiment, as in the examples 
under the rule. 

b. When the conjunction is omitted between clauses having only 
one verb, a semicolon is preferable, because, by the ellipsis of the 
verb, the portions of the sentence are dependent in their construc- 
tion, and more closely allied ; as, " The path of truth is a plain and 
safe path; that of falsehood, a perplexing maze." — See page 104. 

c. Two clauses, of which the former raises the expectation of 
the latter, or which express a comparison or a contrast one with the 
other, but without the use of a connecting word, are subject to 
the rule ; as, " Anger is like rain : it breaks itself upon that on which 
it falls." — "Cowards die many times: the valiant never taste of 
death." 

d. Conformably also to the rule, a colon is put after the adverbs 
yes, no, or after the vocative case when following them, if they are 
equivalent to a sentence answering a question previously asked or 
implied ; as, " Will he pretend to say that this is an offensive war, — 



TWO CLAUSES NOT CONJOINED. 131 

a war of conquest? Yes: the gentleman has dared to make this 
assertion, and for reasons no less extraordinary than the assertion 
itself." — "Can Rolla's words add vigor to the virtuous energies 
which inspire your hearts? No: you have judged, as I have, the 
foulness of the crafty plea by which these bold invaders would 
delude you." These words are, indeed, often found with a mark of 
exclamation after them; but they are merely abbreviated, though 
forcible, modes of expressing approval or denial, and have the 
signification of the sentence, " I emphatically answer in the affirma- 
tive," or "in the negative." 

e. When placed at the beginning of several sentences, to all of 
which they refer, the adverbial words again, once more, in conclusion, 
and the absolute phrases to proceed, to conclude, &c, which have the 
import of clauses, may be distinguished by a colon ; as, " To sum up 
all: My friends, the time is short. We are as guests in a strange 
land, who tarry but one night. We wander up and down," &c. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

After reciting the Definition of the colon, mention why that point is inserted in 
the following' sentences : — 

Harbor no malice in thy heart : it will be a viper in thy bosom. 

Men's evil manners live in brass: their virtues we write in water. 

Be on thy guard against flattery : it is an insidious poison. 

Do not insult a poor man : his misery entitles him to pity. 

Never flatter the people : leave that to such as mean to betray them. 

Endeavor to excel : much may be accomplished by perseverance. 

Study to acquire the habit of thinking : no study is more important. 

Reading is but an instrument: education is to teach its best use. 

To rule one's anger is well: to prevent it is better. 

The word must be spoken: we want more justice, and less charity. 

It is a miserable thing to five in suspense : it is the life of a spider. 



There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time: 
wisdom is the repose of the mind. 

A human heart throbs beneath the beggar's gabardine: it is no 
more than this that stirs with its beating the prince's mantle. 

The present life is not wholly prosaic, precise, tame, and finite : 
to the gifted eye, it abounds in the poetic. 

To be free, to have the mind of a freeman, is not to consider 
liberty as a privilege which a few only are to enjoy, and which, like 



lo2 THE COLON. 



narrow and limited good, would become less by distribution: it 
is to wish, and to wish ardently, that all partook of the blessing. 

Selfishness is the poison of a true devotion: love is its only fitting 
instrument. 

Birth and death have an indissoluble con-elation : they presuppose 
each other. 

It is unworthy of one great people to think falsely of another: it 
is unjust, and therefore unworthy. 

The passionate are like men standing on their heads : they see all 
things the wrong way. 

Pride is increased by ignorance : those assume the most who know 
the least. — Do not despise human life : it is the gift of God. 

He who receives a good turn should never forget it : he who does 
one should never remember it. 

All reasoning is retrospect: it consists in the application of facts 
and principles previously known. 

Eeal goodness does not attach itself merely to life : it points to 
another world. 

Laziness grows on people : it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron 
chains. — The prodigal robs his heir: the miser robs himself. 

Nothing is denied to well-directed labor: nothing is ever to be 
attained without it. 

The silence of nature is more impressive, would we understand it, 
than any speech could be : it expresses what no speech can utter. 

Good temper is like a sunny day: it sheds a brightness over every 
thing. — Insist on yourself: never imitate. 

Satire should not be like a saw, but a sword : it should cut, and 
not mangle. 

The philosophies of antiquity addressed themselves to the intel- 
lect: the simple words of Jesus lay hold of the heart. 

The actions of men are like the index of a book : they point out 
what is most remarkable in them. 

Character is like stock in trade : the more of it a man possesses, 
the greater his facilities for making additions to it. 

Men are often warned against old prejudices : I would rather warn 
them against new conceits. 

The greatness of a gift cannot be determined by its absolute 
amount: it can be truly ascertained only by a moral standard. 

Music resembles poetry : in each 

Are numerous graces which no methods teach, 

And which a master-hand alone can reach. 



TWO CLAUSES NOT CONJOINED. 133 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Let colons be inserted between the clauses of these sentences, in accordance with 
the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 130-31): — 

For the training of goodness, the ancient reliance was on the right 
discipline of habit and affection the modern is rather on illumination 
of understanding. 

But no the Union cannot be dissolved its fortunes are too brilliant 
to be marred; its destinies, too powerful to be resisted. (Kule, and 
Remarks d, b.) 

There is a true eloquence, which you cannot too much honor it 
calls into vigorous exercise both the understanding and the heart of 
the hearer. 

As the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties to the task 
before him, and tears sometimes fall on the page he is studying; so 
it is in the school of God's providence there are hard lessons in it. 

This is certain nothing can be done without a recurrence, before 
every thing else, to strict justice in all the departments of human 
intercourse. 

Strive to be a simple, honest, faithful man whatever hidden talent 
you possess will then come forth in its genuineness, and exert all its 
power. — Proceed I am all attention. 

Are these to be conquered by all Europe united? No, sir no 
united nation can be, that has the spirit to resolve not to be con- 
quered. (Remark d.) 

The prophet gives the incentives to action the philosopher supplies 
matter for reflection. One recurs to the heart and the conscience 
as his medium of influence the other addresses himself to pure 
intellect. 

It is with narrow-souled people as with narrow-necked bottles 
the less they have in them, the more noise they make in pouring it 
out. — A little praise is good for a shy temper it teaches it to rely 
on the kindness of others. 

As the fire-fly only shines when on the wing, so it is with the 
human mind when at rest, it darkens. — Cotemporaries appreciate 
the man, rather than his merit posterity will regard the merit, rather 
than the man. 

I care not, Fortune, what you me deny 
You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace; 
You cannot shut the windows of the sky, 
Through which Aurora shows her brightening face. 



134 THE COLON. 

RULE II. 
Conjoined Members of Sentences. 

When a sentence consists of two members which are 
united by a conjunction or an adverb, and either of 
them is divisible into clauses separated by semicolons, 
a colon should be used before the connecting word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not 
see it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever 
saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such 
minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance. 

2. Without the capacity of suffering, we might have been what the world, 
in its common language, terms happy; the passive subjects of a series of 
agreeable sensations : but we could not have had the delights of conscience ; 
we could not have felt what it is to be magnanimous, to have the toil and the 
combat and the victory. 

REMARKS. 

a. These sentences are obviously divisible each into two portions. 
But, as they are susceptible of being subdivided into smaller parts, 
some of which should be separated by the semicolon, according to 
the rule on page 116 ; so, by reason of the principle that a remoter 
connection requires a point indicating a greater separation, the 
colon is introduced between the members ; namely, before the con- 
necting words " so " and " but." 

b. In a long sentence, crowded with distinct clauses, of which 
several are united by conjunctions, it is better to insert a period than 
a colon between the two members, or largest portions; as in the 
following passage from Sir Humphrey Davy : " I envy no quality of 
mind or intellect in others, be it genius, power, wit, or fancy.; but, 
if I could choose what would be most delightful, and I believe most 
useful, to me, I should prefer a firm religious belief to every other 
blessing. Foi* it makes life a discipline of goodness; creates new 
hopes when all earthly hopes vanish ; and throws over the decay, the 
destruction, of existence, the most gorgeous of all lights ; awakens 
life even in death, and from corruption and decay calls up beauty 
and divinity ; makes an instrument of fortune, and shame the ladder 
of ascent to Paradise; and, far above all combinations of earthly 



CONJOINED MEMBERS. 135 

hopes, calls up the most delightful visions of palms and amaranths, 
the gardens of the blest, the security of everlasting joys, where the 
sensualist and the sceptic view only gloom, decay, annihilation, and 
despair." 

c. The mode of punctuation recommended in the last remark is 
worthy of being adopted in the generality of the long passages, whose 
parts are joined by connecting or disjunctive words, which sometimes 
appear in the writings of the present day. But in the compositions 
of the old English writers, which, with much excellence of matter, 
are usually characterized more by unwieldiness than refinement of 
style, sentences often occur, whose members are united either by 
a relative pronoun, which is sometimes preceded by a preposition, 
or by an adverb or participle equivalent to the pronoun. In such 
cases, it is seldom that the members, however lengthened, can be 
separated by a period, without injuring the texture of the parts. 
However painful, therefore, it may be to the eye of the reader to 
fall on a page unrelieved by periods and corresponding breaks, the 
editor or the printer of a work of that kind should conform his 
punctuation to the nature of the composition ; never deviating from 
the original by substituting a full point for the semicolon or the 
colon, unless where the character of the sentiments or the form of 
expressing them obviously admits of such a separation. Thus, the 
colon should be preserved between the members, or larger parts, of 
the following sentences; the first being taken from Dean Swift, 
and the second from an earlier writer, George Sandys: "I swore 
and subscribed to these articles with cheerfulness and content, 
although some of them were not so honorable as I could have 
wished; which proceeded wholly from the malice of Skyresh Bol- 
golam, the high admiral: whereupon my chains were immediately 
unlocked, and I was at full liberty." — " The parts I speak of are 
the most renowned countries and kingdoms : once the seats of most 
glorious and triumphant empires, the theatres of valor and heroical 
actions, the soils enriched with all earthly felicities; the places 
where Nature hath produced her wonderful works ; where arts and 
sciences have been invented and perfected; where wisdom, virtue, 
policy, and civility have been planted, — have flourished; . . . where 
the Son of God honored the earth with his beautiful steps, wrought 
the works of our redemption, triumphed over death, and ascended 
into glory: which countries, once so glorioxas and famous for their 
happy estate, are now, through vice and ingratitude, become the 
most deplored spectacles of extreme misery; the wild beasts of 



136 THE COLON. 

mankind having broken in upon them, and rooted out all civility, and 
the pride of a stern and barbarous tyrant possessing the thrones of 
ancient and just dominion." 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Why are colons inserted between the members of these sentences ? — 

Every one must, of course, think his own opinions right ; for, if 

he thought them wrong, they would no longer be his opinions : but 

there is a wide difference between regarding ourselves as infallible, 

and being firmly convinced of the trutn of our creed. 

He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended ; 

One dream of his childhood his fancy passed o'er : 

But his battles are fought, and his march it is ended; 

The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more. 

How many things are there which a man cannot, with any face 
or comeliness, say or do himself ! A man can scarce allege his own 
merits with modesty, much less extol them ; a man cannot some- 
times brook to supplicate or beg; and a number of the like: but all 
these things are graceful in a friend's mouth, which are blushing in 
a man's own. 

When once our labor has begun, the comfort that enables us to 
endure it is the prospect of its end : for though, in every long work, 
there are some joyous intervals of self-applause, when the attention 
is recreated by unexpected facility, and the imagination soothed by 
incidental excellences not comprised in the first plan; yet the toil 
with which performance struggles after idea is so irksome and 
disgusting, and so frequent is the necessity of resting below that 
perfection which we imagined within our reach, that seldom any 
man obtains more from his endeavors than a painful conviction of 
his defects, and a continual resuscitation of desires which he feels 
himself unable to gratify. 

Patriots have toiled, and in their country's cause 

Bled nobly ; and their deeds, as they deserve, 

Keceive proud recompense. We give in charge 

Their names to the sweet lyre. The historic Muse, 

Proud of the treasure, marches with it down 

To latest times; and Sculpture, in her turn, 

Gives bond in stone and ever-during brass, 

To guard them, and to immortalize her trust : 

But fairer wreaths are due, though never paid, 

To those who, posted at the shrine of truth, 

Have fallen in her defence. 



CONJOINED MEMBERS. 137 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEX. 
Insert both the semicolon and the colon wherever required in these sentences : — 

The republic may perish the wide arch of our ranged union may 
fall star by star its glories may expire stone after stone its columns 
and its Capitol may moulder and crumble all other names which 
adorn its annals may be forgotten but as long as human hearts 
shall anywhere pant, or human tongues shall anywhere plead, for 
a true, rational, constitutional liberty, those hearts shall enshrine 
the memory, and those tongues shall prolong the fame, of George 
Washington. 

We are not merely to transmit the world as we receive it to 
teach, in a stationary repetition, the arts which we have received 
as the dove builds, this year, just such a nest as was built by the 
dove that went out from the ark, when the waters had abated but 
we are to apply the innumerable discoveries, inventions, and im- 
provements which have been successively made in the world, — 
and never more than of late years, — and combine and elaborate 
them into one grand system of condensed efficacy and quickened 
vitality, hi forming and bringing forward our successors. 

We may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gather- 
ings in field or forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment 
great revivals may bear away thousands on a torrent of sympathy 
but it is all in vain, if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent 
culture of every right disposition and the quiet practice of every 
duty in vain, unless they patiently engrave the commandments on 
inward tables, unless they hear a still voice in the soul, and retain a 
steady warmth there, when the noise has ceased and the flames have 
died away, as on the ancient mount of revelation. 

As water, whether it be the dew of heaven or the springs of the 
earth, doth scatter and lose itself in the ground, except it be col- 
lected into some receptacle, where it may by union comfort and 
sustain itself and, for that cause, the industry of man hath framed 
and made spring-heads, conduits, cisterns, and pools, which men 
have accustomed likewise to beautify and adorn with accomplish • 
ments of magnificence and state, as well as of use and necessity so 
knowledge, whether it descend from divine inspiration or spring 
from human sense, would soon perish, and vanish to oblivion, if it 
were not preserved in books, traditions, conferences, and places 
appointed, as universities, colleges, and schools, for the receipt and 
comforting the same. 



138 THE COLON. 

RULE m. 

Quotations, Remarks, §c, formally introduced, 
A colon should be placed before a quotation, a 
speech, a course of reasoning, or a specification of 
articles or subjects, when formally introduced. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The air was sweet and plaintive; and the words, literally translated, 
were these : "The winds roared and the rains fell, when the poor white man, 
faint and weary, came, and sat under our tree." 

2. Let us take, in illustration, three poets, in an ascending scale of intel- 
lectual precedence: Keats, the representative of sensitiveness; Byron, of 
wilfulness ; Shakspeare, of self-direction. 

REMARKS. 

a. By a formal introduction to a quotation, &c, is meant the use 
of any phrase, or mode of expression, drawing the attention of the 
reader to what is about to be said. 

b. Some writers put a dash after the colon, in order to distinguish 
more clearly the quotation from the introductory matter ; as, " The 
words, literally translated, were these: — ' The winds roared,' " &c. 
But this seems unnecessary, unless the words cited begin a new 
paragraph, which usually occurs when they consist of more than 
one sentence. 

c. When a quotation is short, and closely connected with the 
words preceding it, a comma between the parts is sufficient. — See 
page 108. 

d. When quotations or remarks are introduced by one of the 
connective and explanatory words, as, namely, that is, a semicolon 
before and a comma after it are preferable to the colon ; as, " I pur- 
chased the following articles; namely, tea, sugar, coffee, and raisins." 
The reason is, that the connection between the introductory remark 
and the example, or the articles enumerated, is rendered more inti 
mate by the use of the explanatory word. — See page 128. 

e. When the subjects or things specified consist of words or 
phrases in apposition with a preceding noun, or with that which 
is equivalent to it, without any formal introduction, a comma and 
a dash are used ; as, " Energy and audacity of will characterize all 
ruling men, — statesmen, generals, reformers, orators." 



QUOTATIONS FORMALLY INTRODUCED. 139 

ORAL EXERCISE. 
Say why colons are inserted before quotations, §*c, tn the following sentences : — 

All our conduct towards men should be influenced by this im 
portant precept: " Do unto others as ye would that others should do 
unto you." 

The discourse consisted of two parts : hi the first was shown the 
necessity of exercise; in the second, the advantages that would 
result from it. 

Speaking of party zeal, Pope makes this judicious remark : 
" There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in 
which the most ignorant were not the most violent; for a bee is not 
a busier animal than a blockhead." 

Be our plain answer this: The throne we honor is the people's 
choice; the laws we reverence are our brave fathers' legacy; the 
faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity with all man- 
kind, and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave. 

The philosopher Malebranche makes this curious remark : " It is 
possible that some creatures may think half an hour as long as we 
do a thousand years, or look upon that space of duration which we 
call a minute as an hour, a week, a month, or a whole age." 

It is only necessary to make the experiment to find two things : 
one, how much useful knowledge can be acquired in a very little 
time ; and the other, how much time can be spared, by good man- 
agement, out of the busiest day. 

In a letter from Oxford to my bi-other Amos, his late pupil, for 
whom John Henderson always entertained the highest esteem, he 
thus expresses himself: " See that you govern your passions. What 
should grieve us but our infirmities ? what make us angry but 
our own faults? " 

The words with which Beattie concludes one of the most beautiful 
stanzas of his principal poem, express a sentiment with which it is 
impossible for us not to sympathize : — 

" Oh ! how canst thou renounce the boundless store 
Of charms that Nature to her votary yields ? 
The warbling woodland, the resounding shore, 
The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields ; 
All that the genial ray of morning gilds, 
And all that echoes to the song of even ; 
All that the mountain's sheltering bosom shields, 
And all the dread magnificence of heaven; — 
Oh! how canst thou renounce, and hope to be forgiven? » 



140 THE COLON. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Let these sentences be punctuated agreeably to the preceding Rule and 
Remarks (p. 138) : — 

We all admire this sublime passage " God said ' Let there be 
light; ' and there was light." (Rule, and Remark c.) 

Now, pray, remember this Unmixed carbonic acid gas, when 
inhaled, is a deadly poison. (Rule.) 

The infinitive mood is often used as the nominative to a verb 
as, " To err " that is, error, " is human." (Remark d; and p. 128, 
Remark.) 

When the Roman historians describe an extraordinary man, this 
always enters into his character as an essential part of it he was of 
incredible industry and of remarkable application. (Rule.) 

Ye who still linger on the threshold of life, doubting which path 
to choose, remember that, when years shall be passed, and your feet 
shall stumble on the dark mountain, you will cry bitterly, but cry 
in vain " youth! return: oh! give me back my early days." 
(Remark c.) 

Silvio Pellico, in his excellent work on the " Duties of Men," thus 
remarks " To love our country with truly elevated feeling, we ought 
to begin by supplying it, in ourselves, with citizens, of whom that 
country need not feel ashamed." (Rule.) 

Listening intently at the chimney, which communicated with that 
below, I distinctly heard the husband utter these words "Well, come 
now: must we kill them both?" To which the woman replied 
" Yes; " and I heard nothing more. (Rule, and Remark c.) 

When the love of fame acts upon a man of genius, the case 
appears to stand thus The generality of the world, distinguished by 
the name of readers, observe, with a reluctance not unnatural, a 
person raising himself above them. All men have some desire of 
fame, and fame is grounded on comparison. (Rule.) 

One of the best writers of the present day, but perhaps one of 
the least known, — John James Tayler, — says, when comparing the 
labors of the philosopher with those of the prophet " The philosopher, 
on the other side, cautiously accepting the material transmitted to 
him, explores it with the keen edge of his analysis, and pares off 
from the vital substance of truth the impure accretions which it has 
contracted in the grosser atmosphere of the popular belief, and which 
must check its growth and expansion when placed in the thin, pure 
air of a higher region." (Rule.) 



TERMS IN THE RULE OF THREE. 141 

EULE IV. 

The Chanting Service in the Liturgy. 

A mark similar to a colon is inserted in every verse 

of the Psalms used in the " Book of Common Prayer," 

and in works of a like nature ; as, " My tongue is the 

pen : of a ready writer." 

REMARK. 

This mark does not represent a grammatical point, but is inserted 
for the use of choirs, where the Psalms, and other portions of the 
Liturgy, are chanted; and serves only to divide a verse into two 
parts. 

EULE V. 
Terms in the Rule of Three. 

In arithmetical works, the terms used in the Rule of 
Three are set off by colons. Thus, the expression, 
"As 111 lbs. is to $6.45, so is 37 lbs. to $2.15," is put 
in the form, — " 111 lbs. : $6,45 : : 37 lbs. : $2.15." 



CONCLUDING REMARKS. 

a. Some of the rules on the proper application of the colon and 
the dash ought to be rejected in works where their observance 
would occasion ambiguity; as in books of arithmetic, where colons 
are used for proportion, and where the dash is put as a mark for 
subtraction. Should these marks frequently occur, it will not be 
improper to substitute a semicolon where the construction requires 
the grammatical colon or the dash. 

b. In works printed prior to this century, the colon was some- 
times used to denote abbreviation ; and, even at the present day, it 
is occasionally so employed in writing. This mode of punctuation, 
however, may be justly regarded as erroneous; the period being 
almost universally preferred as the mark denoting the contraction 
of words. 



142 



Sect. IV. — THE PERIOD. 



The Period, or Full Point [ . ], serves to indicate 
the end of a sentence which is assertive in its nature, 
and independent of any following sentence. 

RULE I. 
Complete and Independent Sentences. 

When a sentence is complete in itself, and is neither 
connected in construction with what follows, nor of an 
interrogatory or exclamatory nature, its termination is 
marked with a period. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Truth is the basis of every virtue. It is the voice of reason. Let its pre- 

cepts be religiously obeyed. Never transgress its limits. 

2. The right is the supreme good, and includes all other goods. In seeking 

and adhering to it, we secure our true and only happiness. 

REMARKS. 

a. For the mode of pointing short sentences which are slightly- 
connected with each other, see page 125. 

b. A full point is admissible between two parts of a long sentence, 
though they are closely connected in sense by a particle, when either 
of them can be divided into more simple parts, separated from one 
another by a semicolon or a colon ; as in the following passage, in 
which the writer treats of Shakspeare : " Other men may have led, 
on the whole, greater and more impressive lives than he ; other men, 
acting on their fellows through the same medium of speech that he 
used, may have expended a greater power of thought, and achieved 
a greater intellectual effect, in one consistent direction ; other men, 
too (though this is very questionable), may have contrived to issue 



INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 143 

the matter which they did address to the world, in more compact 
and perfect artistic shapes. But no man that ever lived said such 
splendid extempore things on all subjects universally; no man that 
ever lived had the faculty of pouring out, on all occasions, such a 
flood of the richest and deepest language." 

c. When the two larger portions of a continuous passage are joined 
by a conjunction, they may be separated by a period, if several of the 
minor parts are united to each other also by conjunctions. — See 
p. 134, Remark b. 

d. A full point should be used between two sentences, joined by 
a conjunction, though their parts are incapable of being separated 
by a semicolon or a colon, if they do not depend one on the other 
in construction, and are not directly connected ; as, " There are 
thoughts and images flashing across the mind in its highest moods, 
to which we give the name of inspiration. But whom do we honor 
with this title of the inspired poet? " 

e. From the last remark and example, it is evident that the kind 
of point used depends less on the connecting word than on the 
construction and nature of the sentences. Accordingly, we find 
numerous instances, particularly in the Bible, of not only sentences, 
but paragraphs and chapters, beginning with and, and other con- 
junctions ; as, " For the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that 
is a householder, who went out early in the morning to hire laborers 
into his vineyard. And, when- he had agreed with the laborers for a 
penny a day, he sent them into his vineyard. And he went," &c. 



ORAL, EXERCISES. 

Mention the grammatical use of the period, and the reason for inserting that 
point in the sentences that follow : — 

The benefits of conversation greatly depend on the previous 
attainments of those who are supposed either to communicate 
knowledge or to receive it. If, therefore, instruction be neglected, 
conversation Avill grow trifling; if perverted, dangerous. 

KnoAvledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. The 
liberal student will therefore endeavor to collect ideas on subjects 
which can enrich the understanding. Languages, and a taste for 
elegant letters, will form but a small part of his literary objects. He 
will dedicate a great portion of his time to the sciences properly so 
denominated. He will search for knowledge, not only in books, but 
in the exchange, the manufactory, the world at lai-ge. From these 



144 THE PERIOD. 

various sources, he will collect food for the mind, on which he will 
afterwards ruminate. 

There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beauti- 
ful island, famous in story and in song. Its area is not so great as 
that of the State of Louisiana, while its population is almost half that 
of the Union. It has given to the world more than its share of 
genius and of greatness. It has been prolific in statesmen, warriors, 
and poets. Its brave and generous sons have fought successfully all 
battles but their own. In wit and humor, it has no equal; while its 
harp, like its history, moves to tears by its sweet but melancholy 
pathos. 

Be servants of truth and duty, each in his vocation. Be sincere, 
pure in heart, earnest, enthusiastic. A virtuous enthusiasm is 
always self-forgetful and noble. It is the only inspiration now 
vouchsafed to man. Blend humility with learning. Ascend above 
the present in place and time. Kegard fame only as the eternal sha- 
dow of excellence. Bend in adoration before the right. Cultivate 
alike the wisdom of experience and the wisdom of hope. Mindful 
of the future, do not neglect the past: awed by the majesty of anti- 
quity, turn not with indifference from the future. 

I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and dis- 
grace, stop where you are. The past and the present call on you to 
advance. Let what you have gained be an impulse to something 
higher. Your nature is too great to be crushed. You were not 
created what you are, merely to toil, eat, drink, and sleep, like the 
inferior animals. If you will, you can rise. No power in society, 
no hardship in your condition, can depress you, keep you down, in 
Knowledge, power, virtue, influence, but by your own consent. 
Make yourselves worthy of your free institutions, and strengthen 
and perpetuate them by your intelligence and your virtues. 

This world is full of beauty, — full of innocent gladness. Open 
your inmost sense to all the influences of what is brightest and 
happiest in the scenes around you. Let the spirit be clear and 
transparent, to receive and transmit these blessed influences of the 
Creator's love, and send out the light of them on other hearts. Only 
a pure and gentle soul can feel them. Keep yours so that they do 
not come to you in vain. There is impiety in letting all this beauty 
rise and set on us daily unfelt. To sympathize with the loveliness 
which blooms and sparkles in every aspect of this terrestrial para- 
dise is silent praise, — that worship of the heart, more audible to 
the ear of God than the chanted litany of the cathedral. 



INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 145 

tn accordance with the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 142-3), say why periods are 
inserted in the following passages .• — 

Legitimate reasoning is impossible without severe thinking; and 
thinking is neither an easy nor an amusing employment. The reader 
who would follow a close reasoner to the summit and absolute prin- 
ciple of any one important subject has chosen a chamois-hunter for 
his guide. Our guide will, indeed, take us the shortest way, will save 
us many a wearisome and perilous wandering, and warn us of many 
a mock road, that had formerly led himself to the brink of chasms 
and precipices, or at least in an idle circle to the spot from whence 
he started. But he cannot cany us on his shoulders : we must strain 
our own sinews as he has strained his, and make firm footing on the 
naked rock for ourselves by the blood of toil from our own feet. 

There is no one, of ever so little understanding in what belongs 
to a human constitution, who knows not, that without action, mo- 
tion, and employment, the body languishes and is oppressed; its 
nourishment runs to disease ; the spirits, employed abroad, help to 
consume the parts within; and nature, as it were, preys upon her*- 
self. For although au inclination to ease, and moderate rest from 
action, be as natural and useful to us as the inclination we have 
towards sleep ; yet an excessive love of rest, and a contracted aver- 
sion to employment, must be a disease in the mind, equal to that of 
a lethargy in the body. 

This calamity is peculiar to man. The inferior tribes know 
nothing of it. They obey the laws of their life, and so they have 
no dread of what is to come. The lamb gambols alike through the 
green pastures or to the place of slaughter. Up to the last flutter 
of her wings, the bird ceases not to trill her matins upon the air. 
But the only immortal being upon the earth lives in dread of death. 
The only being to whom death is an impossibility fears every day 
that it will come. And if we analyze the nature of this fear, and 
explore the cause of it, we shall not be at all certain that it will not 
follow the mere natural man into a future life, and have an important 
part in its retributions. 

When we look at different races of animals, though all partake of 
that mysterious property, life; yet what an immense and impassable 
distance is there between the insect and the lion ! They have no bond 
of union, no possibility of communication. During the lapse of ages, 
the animalcules which sport in the sunbeams a summer's day, and 
then perish, have made no approximation to the king of the forests. 
But in the intellectual world there are no such barriers. All minds are 
10 



146 THE PERIOD. 

essentially of one origin, one nature, kindled from one divine flame; 
and are all tending to one centre, one happiness. This great truth, to 
us the greatest of truths, which lies at the foundation of all religion 
and of all hope, seems to me not only sustained by proofs which satisfy 
the reason, but to be one of the deep instincts of our nature. 

In whatever way, and in whatever century, the Homeric poems 
might be created and fashioned, they place before us a time when 
the heroic age Avas on the decline, or had perhaps already gone by. 
For there are two different worlds which both exist together in the 
compositions of Homer, — the world of marvels and tradition, which 
still, however, appears to be near and lively before the eyes of the 
poet ; and the living circumstances and present concerns of the world, 
which produced the poet himself. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert periods in their respective places, and substitute capitals for small letters 
at the beginning of the sentences . — 

The character of Washington is among toe most cherished con 
templations of my life it is a fixed star in the firmament of great 
names, shining, without twinkling or obscuration, with clear, steady, 
beneficent light it is associated and blended with all our reflections 
on those things which are near and dear to us. 

Truly good books are more than mines to those who can under- 
stand them they are the breathings of the great souls of past times 
genius is not embalmed in them, as is sometimes said, but lives in 
them perpetually but we need not many books to answer the great 
ends of reading a few are better than many ; and a little time, given 
to a faithful study of the few, will be enough to quicken thought and 
enrich the mind. 

We stand on the threshold of a new age, which is preparing to 
recognize new influences the ancient divinities of violence and wrong 
are retreating to their kindred darkness the sun of our moral uni- 
verse is entering a new ecliptic, no longer deformed by images of 
animal rage, but beaming with the mild radiance of those heavenly 
signs, Faith, Hope, and Charity the age of chivalry has gone : an age 
of humanity has come the horse, which gave the name to the first, 
now yields to man the foremost place in serving him, in doing him 
good, in contributing to his welfare and elevation, there are fields of 
bloodless triumph nobler far than any in which warriors ever con- 
quered here are spaces of labor wide as the world, lofty as heaven. 



HEADINGS AND SUBHEADS. 147 

RULE II. 

Headings, Subheads, Phrases in Titlepages, <5fc 

A period is put after a heading or a subhead, indi- 
cating the kind of matter treated of; after any term 
placed over a column of contents or figure-work ; after 
the address of a person or of persons, as used in epis- 
tolary and other writings ; after every signature to a 
document ; after the name of a book or its description, 
preceding the author's name, in a titlepage ; and after 
any word or phrase used in imprints, catalogues, &c, 
when it is not intimately related to what follows. 
Thus: — 

j CONTENTS. 

Chap. I. — Introduction. Page. 

Sect. I.— The Importance and Uses of Correct Punctuation . . . . 1 

Notes illustrating its Value 18 

Sect. II. — Plan of the Work, and Definitions of the Terms used ... 19 

Definitions of Sentences, &c 20 



2. To Mr. Solomon Piper. 

Dear Sir, — We hereby acknowledge the receipt of your favor of the 25th 
instant, addressed to our society, in which you are pleased, for reasons 
assigned, to present an organ to be placed in our new meeting-house for the 
purpose of aiding in public worship. Be pleased, dear sir, to accept the thanks 
of the society. 

Very gratefully and respectfully, yours, &c, 

Jonathan K. Smith. 
Asa H. Fisk. 

Dublin, Feb. 28, 1853. ASA HEALD 



3. The First-class Standard Reader, for Public and Private Schools. By Epes 
Sargent. Boston: Phillips, Sampson, and Company. 1854. 

Mill (John Stuart). A S3'stem of Logic, Ratiocinative and Lnductive. Third 
edition. London, 1851. 

Christmas with the Poets ; a Collection of Songs, Carols, and Descriptive 
Verses, relating to the Festival of Christmas. 



148 THE PERIOD. 



REMARKS. 

a. No point should be attached to the name of any article or 
subject which is followed, as in the first example, by leaders, or 
several points serving to lead the eye to a term or figure put at the 
end of the line, and completing the sense. 

b. When the subjects of a chapter or section, specified in a head- 
ing or in the contents or index of a book, are distinct, they should 
be separated by a period ; but, if closely connected in sense, they are 
more appropriately marked by a minor point, according to the degree 
of connection subsisting between them ; as, " Chap. II. America. — 
Discover and Settlement: Columbus, Americus, Cabot, &c. Con- 
quest of Mexico: Cortez, Pizarro, &c." 

c. When the names in signatures are followed each by an explana- 
tory term, the full point should be placed after the latter; as, — 



James Maeshall, President. John Thomson, 

Timothy Tompkins, Treasurer. William Park, 



Committee. 



RULE III. 

Names, Titles, and other Words, abbreviated. 

The period must be used after every abbreviated 
word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted in them. 

2. Dr. H. Marsh, F.R.S., &c, Bishop of Peterborough; b. 1757, d. 1839. 

8. The Plays of Wm. Shakspeare are sometimes printed from the text of Geo. 
Stevens, Esq., and Edw. Malone, Esq. 

REMARKS. 

a. When an abbreviated word ends a sentence, only one period is 
used to show the omission of the letters, and the termination of the 
sentence ; but any other point required by the construction should 
be inserted after the period, as exemplified above in the abbrevia- 
tions "F.R.S., &c," and the "Esq." which appears after the name 
of George Stevens. In such lists of words, however, as contain 
many abbreviations, the period only may be used, if no obscurity, 
or doubtfulness of meaning, would be produced by the omission of 
the grammatical point. — See p. 151, Remark c. 



WORDS ABBREVIATED. 149 

6. In books printed at Edinburgh, the period is omitted after an 
abbreviated word which retains the last letter ; as, " Br Combe ; Mr 
Buckingham." But this does not seem to be a sufficient reason for 
deviating from general usage. 

c. Some printers use the apostrophe to indicate an ellipsis of 
intermediate letters in words which are fully pronounced; as, " Cha's; 
W'm , " — a style of pointing that should never be resorted to, except 
in abbreviations of long and unusual words, and where saving of 
space is essential, as in headings to columns of figure-work. 

d. Words derived from a foreign language, and introduced into 
the English, may be written or printed without the period, when 
they are uniformly used as contractions, and pronounced accord- 
ingly; as, " Two per cent is but small interest." Here, " cent," the 
abbreviation of the Latin centum, being now an English word, and 
pronounced as such, the period is unnecessary. 

e. Such words as 1st, 2dly, 12mo, 8vo, 8°, are not, strictly speak- 
ing, abbreviations ; for the figures represent the first letters of each 
word. The period, therefore, should not be used, unless any of these 
terms come at the end of a sentence. When several subjects are 
specified, or when particular days of a month or various sizes of 
books are often mentioned, words of this form are perhaps unobjec- 
tionable ; but, in the usual kinds of composition, it would be better to 
write them in full; as, " The command of the army was given in 1796 
to Napoleon Bonaparte, then in the twenty-seventh year of his age." 

f. When the letters of the alphabet (A, B, C; a, b, c, &c.) are 
employed as significant signs, or for the purpose of reference, it is 
better to point them, not as abbreviations, but as ordinary words, 
in accordance with the construction of the sentences in which they 
occur; as, "The dominical letters for 1776 were G, F: therefore 
the first Sunday in January was the 7th of the month. Then, A 
representing the 7th January, D would represent the 7th February ; 
D, the 7th March; G, the 7th April; B, the 7th May; E, the 7th June: 
and G, the 7th July." When placed at the beginning of a line, they 
are treated as subcaptions or sideheads, which, agreeably to Rule 
II., p. 147, require to be followed by a period, and which, in the Italic 
form, are so used throughout the present work. 

g. Proper names, when shortened and meant so to be pronounced, 
should not, except at the end of a sentence, be written or printed 
with a full point; as, " On the poet's tombstone were inscribed the 
words, ' rare Ben Jonson! ' " 

h. Lists of abbreviated words will be given in Appendix, No. IV. 



150 THE PERIOD. 

RULE IV. 
Marks or Figures used instead of Words. 

When either marks or Arabic figures are substituted 
for words, the period should not be used, except at the 
end of a sentence ; but the full point is inserted, before 
decimals, and between pounds and shillings. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. He borrows $5,000, and agrees to pay interest at 6 per cent per annum. 

2. As an illustration of our remarks, see § 2, IT 10, notes * and t« 

3. 8 + 9 + 7 X 13 — 5 + 10 X 6 — 12 X 2 h- 5 + 21 = 777. 

i. £1. 10s. 6d. sterling is equivalent to $6.78, United-States money. 

REMARKS. 

a. Marks and figures are considered as representative signs, not 
abbreviations. Hence the propriety of the rule. 

b. When figures are put in a tabular or columnar form, periods 
are not inserted; but, when they occur in regularly constructed 
sentences or in dates or headings, that point should be used which 
would be adopted if they were written in words. 



RULE V. 
Letters used for Figures or Words. 

When numerals are written in characters of the 
alphabet, instead of words or Arabic figures, it is usual 
to insert periods after them in all situations ; and, 
when employed as dates, to separate by periods the 
portions into which they are divided when audibly 
read. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. In proof of his position, the learned divine referred to Gen. vi. 12, 13. 

Ps. lxv. 2; lxxviii. 39. Acts ii. 17. 1 Cor. i. 29. 

2. In the titlepages of books and in inscriptions, dates are sometimes put in 

capitals, instead of figures; as, M.DCCC.LV. for 1855. 



LETTERS FOR FIGURES OR WORDS. 151 

REMARKS. 

a. A full point is, in the first example, put after chapters vi., lxv., 
Ixxviii.,ii., and i. ; and, in the second, after M., DCCC, and LV., — 
not as being equivalent to the grammatical period, but merely be 
cause, of all the marks, it is the least offensive to the eye, and has 
been generally employed in such cases. 

b. In referring to the chapters of the Bible, some writers use the 
Arabic figures; as, "Gen. 6. 12, 13," or "6: 12, 13;" putting after 
them a colon or a period. But the mode exhibited in the first exam- 
ple under the rule is supported by the best usage, and is, we think, 
much preferable in its more clearly distinguishing the chapters from 
the verses. 

c. Bible and other references are sometimes made by the insertion 
of a comma after the period; as, " Gen., vi., 12, 13; " " Vol. i., part 
iv., sect, ii., § 3." But, though this mode of punctuation is more 
accurate than that which omits the comma, it is less simple ; and, 
because uncouth in its appearance, should not be adopted, unless, 
as in Remark a, it is essential to a clear discerning of the sense. - 
See p. 100, second portion of Remark j. 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

Assign the reasons given in the four preceding Rules and the Remarks for the 
punctuation of headings, names of books, abbreviations, marks, figures, and 
numeral capitals, as they occur in the following sentences: — 

What will £100 amount to in 34 years, at 4| per cent per annum, 
compound interest? (Rule IV.; and Remark d, under Rule III.) 

The train leaves New York at 9 o'clock, a.m., and 4^, p.m.; 
returning at 10 in the evening. (Rules IV. and III.) 

Biit the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same region, 
for the reasons already given. See chap. vi. § xii. *[[ 4, p. 530. 
(Rule III.; and Rule V., Remark c.) 

Poetical Works. Mark Akenside. Lond. 1865. 2 toIs. 12mo . . . 4538 
(Rule II. and Rem. a ; Rule HI., last of Rem. a, Rem. e ; Rule TV.) 

To R. H. Dana, jun., Esq., the well-known author of " Two Years 
before the Mast," the community are greatly indebted. (Rule III. 
and first of Remark a.) 

Titus died in the third year of his reign, and the 41st year of his 
age, not without suspicion of being poisoned by his brother Domi- 
tian, who succeeded him. (Remark e, under Rule III.) 



152 THE PERIOD. 

Young as he was, the gentleman earned the approbation of his 
friends, and at length became M.D., F.R.S., F.A.S. (Rule III. and 
first of Remark a.) 

Constantine the Great was advanced to the sole dominion of the 
Roman world, A.D. 325, and soon after openly professed the Chris- 
tian faith. (Rule III. ; Rule IV., last portion of Remark b.) 

Lecture II. — The later Literature of the Greeks. — Their Sophists and 

Philosophers. — The Alexandrian Age 29 

(Rule II. and Remark a.) 

Thomas Campbell wrote some beautiful lines on the Scottish 
king, James IV., who fell at the battle of Flodden. (Rule III.; and 
Remark a, first portion.) 

The sentiments which chivalry inspired had a wonderful influ- 
ence on manners and conduct during the 12th, 13th, and 14th 
centuries. (Remark e, under Rule III.) 

" Why so crusty, good sir? " — " Zounds! " cries Will, in a taking, 
" Who wouldn't be crusty with half a year's baking? " 

(Remark g, under Rule HE.) 

There are only two common principles on which every work of 
imagination must more or less proceed, — 1st, On the expression 
of those feelings which are common to all men of elevated thinking ; 
and, 2d, On those patriotic feelings and associations peculiar to the 
people in whose language it is composed, and on whom it is to exert 
its nearest and most powerful influence. (Remark e, under Rule III.) 

Introduction. 1. The Early Years of Elizabeth's Reign; Summary of their 
Literature. — 2. Literary Greatness of the next Eighty Years; Division 
into Three Eras. Reign of Elizabeth from 1580. — 3. Social Cha- 
racter of the Time; its Religious Aspect; Effects on Literature. — 4. Minor 
Elizabethan Writers ; their Literary Importance ; the Three Great Names. 
(Rule II. and Remark b.) 

The following are some of the marble statues, in the Museum of 
Naples, which most impressed me : — 

Psyche; a fragment, but full of feeling, grace, and beauty; by some 
ascribed to Praxiteles. 

A bust of Caracalla, animated and lifelike. 

Two equestrian statues of Balbus and his son, found at Herculaneum; 
simple, noble, and dignified. 

A beautiful bas-relief of Daedalus and Icarus. 

A fine head of Alexander. (Rule II.) 



153 



CHAPTER 111. 

THE GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL POINTS. 



Besides the Comma, the Semicolon, the Colon, and 
the Period, which are properly regarded as the most 
essential points in bringing out the sense of a written 
or printed composition, there are a few other marks, 
partly grammatical and partly rhetorical, well deserv- 
ing the attention of those who desire to have their 
writings, whether of an epistolary or of a more elabo- 
rate nature, easily understood : — 

1. The Note of Interrogation ...[?] 

2. The Note of Exclamation . . . . f ! J 

3. The Marks of Parenthesis . . . ( ) 

4. The Dash [ — J 

In classifying these points as both grammatical and 
rhetorical, we mean to imply, not that those which 
have come under consideration afford no facilities in 
delivery, but that the Marks of Interrogation, Excla- 
mation, and Parenthesis, and the Dash, have a more 
direct bearing on that art. They are rhetorical, in 
proportion to the degree in which they exhibit the 
force and intensity of a style that is rhetorical in its 
structure ; but they are also grammatical, because they 
often serve to indicate, in connection with other marks, 
the nature, construction, and sense of the passages in 
which they occur. 



154 



Sect. I. — THE NOTES OF INTERROGATION 
AND EXCLAMATION. 



1. The Note of Interrogation [ ? ] shows that 
a question is denoted by the words to which it is 
annexed. 

2. The Note of Exclamation [ ! ] indicates pas- 
sion or emotion. 

REMARKS. 

a. The notes of interrogation and exclamation do not mark the 
relative pauses of the voice ; occupying, as they do, sometimes 
the place of the comma or the semicolon, and sometimes that of the 
colon or the period. But they are usually put at the end of sen- 
tences, and are equivalent to a full point; requiring, therefore, in 
the majority of instances, the word that follows to begin with a 
capital letter, as after the period. 

b. In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish the difference be- 
tween an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence. As a general 
rule, however, it may be observed, that after words in which an 
answer is implied, or to which one is expected to be given, the note 
of interrogation is added; and after those, though apparently de- 
noting inquiry, where no answer is involved or intended, the note 
of exclamation is the proper and distinctive mark. If the writer of 
such passages has a clear conception of his own meaning, he can 
be at no loss which of the points should be used; but if the lan- 
guage is ambiguous, and requires to be punctuated by a printer or 
an editor, either of the marks may, under the circumstances, be 
regarded as admissible. 

c. In treating of the interrogative and exclamative marks, writers 
on punctuation, laying too much stress on the rhetorical character 
of these points, are wont to say that they cause an elevation of the 
voice. ' But, though it must be acknowledged that they assist much 
in the proper delivery of the passages in which they occur, it will 



INTERROGATORY EXPRESSIONS. 155 

not be denied that this results only from a knowledge of a writer's 
meaning, and from the kind of phraseology which he employs. 
That the notes of interrogation and exclamation have far less to 
do with the inflections of the voice than is commonly imagined, will 
be fully apparent from the following sentences, some of which 
require a rise, and others a fall, in their pronunciation : " Shall we 
in your person crown' the author of the public calamities, or shall 
we destroy^ him V " — "What is the happiness that this world can 
give v ? Can it defend us from disasters' V " — "Oh that these lips had 
language' ! " — " How mysterious are the ways of Providence" ! " 



RULE I. 
Expressions in the Form of Questions. 

An interrogative mark is placed at the termination 
of every question, whether it requires an answer, or, 
though in its nature assertive, is put, for the sake of 
emphasis, in an interrogative form. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Why, for so many a year, has the poet or the philosopher wandered 
amid the fragments of Athens or of Rome ; and paused, with strange and 
kindling feelings, amid their broken columns, their mouldering temples, their 
deserted plains ? It is because their day of glory is past. 

2. How can he exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble who only 
believes, that, after a short term on the stage of existence, he is to sink into 
oblivion, and to lose his consciousness for ever? 

BE1HKKS. 

a. The first of these passages exemplifies a sentence expressive 
of direct inquiry; the second, one that is assertive in its meaning, but 
interrogative in its structure or form. 

b. The mark of interrogation should not be used when it is only 
affirmed that a question has been asked, and the expression denoting 
inquiry is put in any other shape than that of a direct question ; as, 
" I was asked if I would stop for dinner." If put in the interroga- 
tive form, this sentence would be read and punctuated according to 
the rule: "I was asked, ' Will you stop for dinner? ' " 



156 THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

c. In some instances, however, a question may be assertive in its 
form, but interrogative in its sense ; as, " You will stop for dinner ? " 
In order to distinguish a sentence of this kind from one that is 
affirmative botb in form and signification, it is obvious that the note 
of interrogation should be employed. 

d. It is a common error, both with writers and printers, to 
make one interrogative mark represent several successive questions, 
which, though connected in sense, are in construction distinct and 
separate; and to substitute semicolons or dashes where notes of 
interrogation should be used. In the following passage, therefore, 
each question should be distinguished by its appropriate mark, and 
not by dashes, which are used in the original: " What is civilization? 
Where is it ? What does it consist in ? By what is it excluded ? 
Where does it commence ? Where does it end ? By what sign is it 
known? How is it defined? In short, what does it mean? " 

e. When, however, the expressions denoting inquiry cannot be 
separated, and read alone, without materially injuring the sense, one 
mark of interrogation, placed at the end of all the questions, will 
be sufficient; as, "Ah! whither now are fled those dreams of great- 
ness; those busy, bustling days; those gay-spent, festive nights; 
those veering thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared thy 
life?" 

f When sentences or expressions which were affirmative when 
spoken or originally written are quoted by a writer in the form of a 
question, the interrogative point should be put after the marks of 
quotation [" "], and not before them; as, — 

" The passing crowd " is a phrase coined in the spirit of indifference. 
Yet, to a man of what Plato calls " universal sympathies," and even to the 
plain, ordinary denizens of this world, what can be more interesting than 
" the passing crowd "? 

Bat, for the sake of neatness, any of the four grammatical points, 
when required, should be put before the quotation-marks, as they 
are not likely to give a false meaning to the words cited. 

g. The interrogative mark should be inserted immediately after 
a question which formally introduces a remark or a quotation ; as, 
" Who will not cherish the sentiment contained in the following 
words of Washington ? ' The nation which indulges towards another 
an habitual hatred or an habitual fondness is, in some degree, a slave. 
It is a slave to its animosity or to its affection, either of which is 
sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interest.' " 



INTERROGATORY EXPRESSIONS. 157 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

After mentioning the distinctive uses of the notes of interrogation and exclama- 
tion, say why interrogative marks are inserted in these sentences : — 

Are there not seasons of spring in the moral world ? and is not 
the present age one of them ? 

Who can look only at the muscles of the hand, and doubt that 
man was made to work ? 

The past, the mighty past, the parent of the present, — where is 
it? What is it? 

Are the palaces of kings to be regarded with more interest than 
the humbler roofs that shelter millions of human beings ? 

If a wicked man could be happy, who might have been so happy 
as Haman ? 

Who would tear asunder the best affections of the heart, the 
noblest instincts of our nature ? 

Have you more liberty allowed you to wound your neighbor's 
character than you have to shed his blood ? 

A gaudy verbosity is always eloquence in the opinion of him that 
writes it; but what is the effect on the reader? 

Bion, seeing a person who was tearing the hair of his head for sor- 
row, said, " Does this man think that baldness is a remedy for grief? " 

Is the celestial fire which glowed in their hearts for ever quenched, 
and nought but ashes left to mingle with the earth, and be blown 
around the world ? 

You say you will repent in some future period of time ; but are 
you sure of arriving at that period of time ? Have you one hour in 
your hand ? Have you one minute at your disposal ? 

What but the ever-living power of literature and religion pre- 
served the light of civilization, and the intellectual stores of the past, 
undiminished in Greece, during the long and dreary ages of the 
decline and downfall of the Roman empire ? 

Who shall sunder me from such men as Fenelon and Pascal and 
Borromeo, — from Archbishop Leighton, Jeremy Taylor, and John 
Howard ? Who can rupture the spiritual bond between these men 
and myself? Do I not hold them dear? Does not their spirit, flow- 
ing out through their writings and lives, penetrate my soul ? Are 
they not a portion of my being? Am I not a different man from 
what I should have been, had not these and other like spirits acted 
on mine ? And is it in the power of synod or conclave, or of all the 
ecclesiastical combinations on earth, to part me from them ? 



158 NOTE OP INTERROGATION. 

Show how the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 155-6) apply to tJie punctuation of these 
sentences •■ — 

" Honest man," says I, " be so good as to inform me whether 1 
am in the way to Mirlington." 

The question is not what we might actually wish with our present 
views, but what with juster views we ought to wish. 

When a king asked Euclid the mathematician, whether he could 
not explain his art to him in a more compendious manner, he was 
answered that there was no royal way to geometry. 

"The sun not set yet, Thomas?" — "Not quite, sir. It blazes 
through the trees on the hill yonder, as if their branches were all on 
fire." 

The Phoenicians invented letters; but what did they do with 
them ? Apply them to the record, the diffusion, transmission, and 
preservation of knowledge ? 

You do not expect me to leave my family, when we are all so 
comfortable, and brave the perils of a long passage and sickly cli- 
mate, for the mere chance of getting gold ? 

To purchase heaven, has gold the power? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour? 
In life can love he bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold? — 
No : all that's worth a wish or thought, 
Fair virtue gives unbribed, unbought. 

Can gray hairs make folly venerable ? and is not their period to 
be reserved for retirement and meditation ? 

Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens above us, mere 
decorations of the night, or suns and centres of planetary systems ? 

Where be your gibes now; your gambols; your songs; your 
flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table in a roar? 

Are you conscious of a like increase ill wisdom, — in pure en- 
deavors to make yourself and other men what you and they ought 
to be? 

Greece, indeed, fell; but how did she fall? Did she fall like 
Babylon ? Did she fall " like Lucifer, never to hope again " ? 

Is there any man so swelled by the conceit of his union with the 
true church, as to stand apart, and say, "lam holier than thou " ? 

What do you say ? What ? I really do not understand you. Be 
so good as to explain yourself again. Upon my word, I do not. — 
Oh ! now I know : you mean to tell me it is a cold day. Why did 
you not say at once, " It is cold to-day " ? 



EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS. 159 

RULE H. 
Expressions indicating Passion or Emotion. 

An exclamative mark is put after expressions de- 
noting an ardent wish, admiration, or any other strong 
emotion ; after interjections, words used as interjections, 
or clauses containing them ; and after terms or expres- 
sions in an address, corresponding to the vocative case 
in Latin, when emphatic. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Would that we had maintained our humhle state, and continued to live in 

peace and poverty ! 

2. How sweet are the slumbers of him who can he down on his pillow, and 

review the transactions of every day, without condemning himself ! 

3. What a fearful handwriting upon the walls that surround the deeds of 

darkness, duplicity, and sensual crime! 

4. Bah ! that's the third umbrella gone since Christmas. What were you to 

do! Why, let him go home in the rain, to be sure. 

5. Away, all ye Caesars and Napoleons! to your own dark and frightful 

domains of slaughter and misery ! 

6. Friends, countrymen, and lovers ! hear me for my cause, and be silent that 

you may hear. 

REMARKS. 

a. With the exception of the dash, there is probably no point 
respecting which more vague and inaccurate conceptions are enter- 
tained than in regard to the applying of the note of exclamation. 
Some writers freely make use of this mark where the sentiments 
do not contain one iota of emotion, and foist it in on every possible 
occasion, sometimes in a twofold or a triplicate form; thus vainly 
trying to hide their lack of pathos or of passion by a bristling array 
of dagger-like points. Others, again, indulge a questionable taste 
for the same mark, by using it wherever their diction is capable 
of conveying emotion to others, but where neither the structure of 
the expressions employed, nor the tones or inflections of the voice 
required in reading, will admit of the point. On this subject, we 
quote the judicious remarks of the Eev. Joseph Robertson, in his 
" Essay on Punctuation," third edition, Lond. 1791, p. 113: "It may 



160 NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

not be improper to caution the young and inexperienced writer 
against the immoderate use of exclamations. Whenever we see a 
page in prose profusely interspersed with points of admiration, we 
generally rind it full of unnatural reveries, rant, and bombast. The 
Sacred Writings, and particularly the Psalms, abound with expres- 
sions of the warmest piety, and the most elevated descriptions of 
the Divine nature; .... but our translators, in conformity to the 
sober majesty of the original, have seldom introduced the note of 
admiration." 

b. Generally speaking, only those sentences, clauses, or phrases 
should have the note of exclamation, which demand a fervid, pas- 
sionate mode of delivery; or which commence with any of the 
interjections; with verbs in the imperative mood, adverbs, or prepo- 
sitions, uttering a stern command or forcibly calling attention ; with 
the adverbs how, what, unless they denote affirmation or inquiry ; or 
with the case of addi-ess, when used in a solemn style, or emphasized 
by the use of the word 0. 

c. Between the interjections and oh there exists an essential 
difference, which is frequently neglected even by some of our best 
writers. The former is properly prefixed to an expression in a 
direct address; but the latter ought never to be so employed. 
should be used without the mark of exclamation immediately after 
it; but oh, sometimes with and sometimes without it, according to 
the construction and sense of the passage in which the word occurs. 
The following sentences will illustrate the difference spoken of, and 
the true mode of punctuation : — 

1. The heavens and earth, Lord! proclaim thy boundless power. 

2. When, my countrymen! will you begin to exert your vigor? 

3. blessed spirit, who art freed from earth ! rejoice. 

4. Oh ! nothing is further from my thoughts than to deceive you. 

5. Oh, what a glorious part you may act on the theatre of humanity ! 

6. Oh that all classes of society were both enlightened and virtuous ! 

In the first three examples, the particle may be justly regarded as 
the sign of the case of address, which with its assistance conveys a 
feeling of greater emphasis or passion than it usually does without 
the sign : the note of exclamation being, in the first instance, put 
after the vocative word; in the second, after the vocative phrase; 
and, in the third, after the vocative clause. In the last three exam- 
ples, the interjection, according to the form adopted (oh) and the 
manner in which it is applied, is obviously a different word. In 
the example numbered 4, the word oh is followed immediately by the 



EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS. 161 

mark denoting exclamation, because it is independent of the next 
expression, which closes merely with a period, there being nothing 
characteristic of emotion in the structure of the language used. In 
the fifth example, the interjection is pointed with a comma, because 
this word is grammatically separable from the part of the sentence 
beginning with " what; " but the note of exclamation, which would 
have been put after oh if the following expression had been simply 
affirmative, is placed at the end of all, to show the unity of strong 
feeling which runs throughout. In the sixth and last example, the 
interjection is not separated by any point from the conjunction 
" that," on account of its intimate relation to what follows; and the 
mark denoting an ardent wish is therefore, as in the preceding exam- 
ple, placed at the close of the sentence. 

d. In accordance with the mode of punctuation adopted in the 
examples illustrating Eemark c, it is recommended, that wherever 
interjections, or any other words indicative of deep emotion or fervid 
passion, are not meant to be significant in themselves, but to form 
part of a phrase, clause, or sentence, the mark of exclamation be put 
not after each of these words, but only at the end of each expression ; 
as, " Ah me ! " — " Alas, my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die ! " — 
"All hail, ye patriots brave!" — " Kouse, ye Romans! rouse, ye 
slaves ! " This simple style of pointing seems much preferable to — 
"Ah! me!" " Alas ! my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die ! " &c. ; 
is sufficiently expressive for all the purposes of animated composition ; 
and tends to preclude, what every author must dread, the charge of 
affectation or of quackery. 

e. A remark similar to what is applied to the note of interroga 
tion, p. 156, Remark /, may be made here. When expressions which 
were assertive in their original state are quoted, and used in an 
exclamatory manner, the point indicating astonishment, irony, or any 
other feeling, should be put after the marks of quotation ; as, — 

" It is perfectly allowable," says Lord Suffolk, " to use all the means 
which God and nature have put into our hands." .... My lords, we are 
called upon, as members of this house, as men, as Christians, to protest 
against such horrible barbarity. " That God and nature have put into our 
hands " ! What ideas of God and nature that noble lord may entertain, 1 
know not ; but I know that such detestable principles are equally abhorrent 
to religion and humanity. 

This is evidently the fair mode of pointing such extracts ; the notes 
of interrogation and exclamation denoting sentiments quite different 
from those felt by the persons to whom the words quoted belong. 
11 



162 NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

ORAL EXERCISES. 

Why are notes of exclamation inserted in the following examples? — 

Alas, poor Yorick ! — Alas for the man who has not learned to work 
We shall be so happy! — Live, live, ye incomparable pair! 
Behold the daughter of Innocence ! — How peaceful is the grave ! 
Freedom ! thou art not, as poets dream, a fair young girl. 
How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood ! 
All hail, thou noble land, our fathers' native soil! 
Praise to the men for whose writings I am the better and wiser ! 
What! kill thy friend who lent thee money, for asking thee for it! 
The secret I implore : out with it ! speak ! discover ! utter ! 
Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! 
Down, soothless insulter ! I trust not the tale. — Ha, ha, ha ! 
Charge, Chester, charge! on, Stanley, on! — Out, out, Lucetta! 
Oh the great deep of suffering in every human breast ! 



How often, in an instant, doth a hand unseen shift the scene of 
the world ! — Alas ! those happy days are gone. 

When we pass from the living world to the dead, what a sad pic- 
ture do we behold ! Oh the grave ! the grave ! 

Happy were it for us, did we constantly view the great Creator 
and Preserver of all continually manifesting himself in his works ! 

May the sun, in his course, visit no land more free, more happy, 
more lovely, than this our own country ! 

What mighty and remote revolutions hath the human mind pre- 
dicted by observing the present positions of the heavenly bodies ! 

How pleasant will it be to mark the soul thus moving forward in 
the brightness of its course ! 

Tremble, man ! whosoever thou art, who art conscious to thy- 
self of unrepented sins. Peace of mind thou shalt never enjoy. 

What a multitude of that living host, now glorious in the blaze of 
arms and burning with desires of conquest, will fall and perish ! 

On you and on your children be the peril of the innocent blood 
which shall be shed this day ! 

I know not what course others may take : but, as for me, give me 
liberty, or give me death ! 

What noble institutions ! what a comprehensive policy ! what wise 
equalization of every political advantage ! 

How beautiful is all this visible world ! how beautiful in its action 
and itself! — The will of God be done ! 



QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. 163 

Show how the Remarks (pp. 160-61) apply to the punctuation of the 
following sentences .- — 

C Providence ! how many poor insects of thine are exposed to be 
trodden to death in each path ! 

This, men of Athens ! my duty prompted me to represent to 
you on this occasion. 

sacred, wise, and wisdom-giving plant, mother of science ! now 
I feel thy power within me. 

thou who future things canst represent as present, heavenly 
instructor ! I revive at this last sight ; assured that man shall live. 

Oh ! I could be bounded in a nutshell, and count myself a king 
of infinite space, were it not that I have had bad dreams. 

Oh ! you are wounded, my lord. — Oh ! many a dream was in the 
ship an hour before her death. 

Oh, how seldom has a pang shot through our hearts at the sight 
of our ruined fellow-creatures ! 

Oh, bloodiest picture in the book of time ! Sarmatia fell, unwept, 
without a crime. 

Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away 
their brains ! 

Oh the insupportable anguish of reflecting that they died of hun- 
ger, when there was bread enough and to spare ! 

Alas for his poor family ! — Alas that folly and falsehood should 
be so hard to grapple with ! 

Daughter of Faith, awake ! arise ! illume the dread unknown, the 
chaos of the tomb ! 

Alas, poor creature ! I will soon revenge this cruelty upon the 
author of it. 

Ugh ! I look forward with dread for to-morrow. — Up, comrades, 
up ! — Away with him to prison ! 

Fie, fie, fie ! pah, pah ! Give me an ounce of civet, good apothe- 
cary, to sweeten my imagination: there's money for thee. 

Ah the laborious indolence of him who has nothing to do ! the 
preying weariness, the stagnant ennui, of him who has nothing to 
obtain ! 

But hail, ye mighty masters of the lay, 
Nature's true sons, the friends of man and truth ! 

How exceedingly prepossessing must have been the appearance 
of this young man, which made an impression upon Jesus so strong 
and evident as to cause it to be remarked that " Jesus loved him " I 



164 INTERROGATIVE AND EXCLAMATIVE MARKS. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Let notes of interrogation and exclamation be inserted in the following sentences, 
agreeably to the principles laid down in the two preceding Rules, and the 
Remarks under them (pp. 155-161) : — 

Peace to their manes May the turf lie lightly on their breast, 
and the verdure over their grave be as perpetual as their memories 
(Rule II.) 

Is he who triumphed in the hope of immortality inferior to the 
worm, his companion in the tomb Will light never rise on the long 
night of the grave (Rule I.) 

What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite 
in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in action 
how like an angel in apprehension how like a god (Rule II.) 

Triptolemus asked Mordaunt, with a voice which faltered with 
apprehension, whether he thought there was any danger. (Remark b, 
under Rule I.) 

How many bright eyes grow dim how many soft cheeks grow 
pale how many lively forms fade away into the tomb — and none 
can tell the cause that blighted their happiness. (Rule II.) 

You do not think, I hope, that I will join in conversation with 
such a man, or that I will so far betray my character as to give coun- 
tenance to such desperate proceedings (Remark c, under Rule I.) 

How happy the station which every minute furnishes opportuni- 
ties of doing good to thousands how dangerous that which every 
moment exposes to the injury of millions (Rule n.) 

Where is the man who is entitled to set a boundary to himself 
in the path of righteousness, saying, " Hitherto shall I go, but no 
further " (Rule I. and Remark /.) 

Wherever an agonizing people shall perish, in a generous convul- 
sion, for want of a valiant arm and a fearless heart, they will cry, in 
the last accents of despair, " Oh for a Washington, an Adams, a 
Jefferson " (Rule n. and Remark c.) 

What words can declare the immeasurable worth of books what 
rhetoric set forth the importance of that great invention which 
diffused them over the whole earth to glad its myriads of minds 
(Rule I. and Remark d.) 

By what inconceivable perversion of taste and of labor has he 
framed, for the sentiments of his religion, a mode of expression so 
uncongenial with the eloquence of his country, and so adapted to dis- 
sociate them from all connection with that eloquence (Rule 1.) 



QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. 165 

It is good to make earth and ocean, winds and flames, sun and 
stars, tributary to our present well-being: how much better to make 
them minister to our spiritual wants, teachers of heavenly truth, 
guides to a more glorious Being than themselves, bonds of union 
between man and his Maker (Rule II.) 

Why is it that the names of Howard and Thornton and Clarkson 
and Wilberforce will be held in everlasting remembrance Is it not 
chiefly on account of their goodness, their Christian philanthropy, 
the overflowing and inexhaustible benevolence of then* great minds 
(Rule I. and Remark e.) 

Victims of persecution how wide an empire acknowledges the 
sway of your principles Apostles of liberty what millions attest 
the authenticity of your mission Meek champions of truth no stain 
of private interest or of innocent blood is on the spotless garments of 
your renown. (Rule II.) 

Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am to what place shall I 
betake myself Shall I go to the capitol — alas it is overflowed with 
my brother's blood ; or shall I retire to my house — yet there I be- 
hold my mother plunged in misery, weeping and despairing. (Rules 
I. and II.) 

What is it only in dreams that beauty and loveliness have beamed 
on me from the human countenance; that I have heard tones of 
kindness which have thrilled through my heart ; that I have found 
sympathy in suffering, and a sacred joy in friendship Are all the 
great and good men of past ages only dreams (Rule II.; Rule I. 
and Remark e.) 

Does not the mind, after all, spread its own hue over all the 
scenes of life Does not the cheerful man make a cheerful world 
Does not the sorrowing man make a gloomy world Does not every 
mind make its own world Does it not — as if indeed a portion of 
the Deity were imparted to it — does it not almost create the scene 
around it (Rule I. and Remark d.) 

Why has God placed man amidst this boundless theatre, revealed 
around him this endless creation, touched his heai't with the love of 
beauty, and given him this delightful and awful interest in all that 
meets his eye, if he is merely a creature of the earth, soon to shut 
his eyes on these majestic scenes, and to be buried for ever in a 
narrow grave Does this love of the infinite, this attachment to the 
universe, seem suitable to so frail a nature Do they not suggest 
the idea of a being who belongs to the universe, and who is to fill an 
ever-widening sphere (Rule I.) 



166 INTERROGATIVE AND EXCLAMATIVE MARKS. 

Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, and now thou art 
in full sight of God. John Milton thou art among the angels and 
the seraphs that were once thy glorious song; and this world is dear 
to them for what thou thyself wert in it. Oh, how sublimely dost 
thou move in heaven, the love of saints and heroes, and spirits 
multitudinous (Eule II. and Remark c.) 

Nature how in every charm supreme (Rule n.) 

Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath 

Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 

Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death (Rule I.) 

A crippled and suffering child, looked at from without, seems the 
heaviest of domestic afflictions. Yet, once confided to our care, 
what an object of tender interest it becomes What gentle and holy 
affections hover over it What a web of soft and fostering duty is 
woven round it It gives new beauty and value to life. We would 
fain keep it with us for ever. What a void is left when it is removed 
by the hand of death (Rule II.) 

What must sound reason pronounce of a mind, which, in the train 
of millions of thoughts, has wandered to all things under the sun, 
to all the permanent objects or vanishing appearances in the crea- 
tion, but never fixed its thought on the Supreme Reality; never 
approached, like Moses, to "see this great sight" (Remark/, 
under Rule I.) 

Oh the littleness of man's heart, capable of loving only by units 
and in successive emotions, and therefore contracting the infinite 
heart of God to the narrowness of his own Oh the meanness of 
man's thoughts, when he takes the foot-rule, by which he measures 
his earthly dwelling, as his base-line of triangulation for measuring 
the amplitude of the heavenly temple (Rule II., Remark c.) 

Who is the man whom you select from the records of time as the 
object of your special admiration Is it he who lived to indulge 
himself; whose current of life flowed most equably and pleasurably; 
whose desires were crowned most liberally with means of gratifica- 
tion ; whose table was most luxuriantly spread ; and whom fortune 
made the envy of his neighborhood by the fulness of her gifts Were 
such the men to whom monuments have been reared, and whose 
memories, freshened with tears of joy and reverence, grow and 
flourish and spread through every age Oh, no (Rule I. and Re- 
mark e; Rule II., Remark d.) 



167 



Sect. II. — MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 



Marks of Parenthesis consist of two curved 
lines ( ), which serve to indicate that an expression 
is inserted in the body of a sentence, with which it 
has no connection in sense or in construction. 

KEMARKS. 

a. These two curves are sometimes called parentheses, or a paren- 
thesis, — the same word that indicates the kind of phrase or clause 
which they enclose. But, as this designation tends to produce 
ambiguity or confusion of ideas, it would be better to name them 
"marks of parenthesis," and to restrict the term " parenthesis" to 
signify, what it properly means, those words which are put between 
such portions of a sentence as are intimately connected in sense and 
in construction. 

b. Marks of parenthesis were once used in greater abundance than 
they are at the present day ; many phrases and clauses now pointed 
with commas having been formerly enclosed by curved hues. This 
probably arose from the fact, that the older writers were more accus- 
tomed to an involved style of composition, which could not be read 
without the frequent use of parenthetical marks; whereas modern 
authors, many of them with less beauty and justness of sentiment, 
are wont to adopt a freer and an uncomplicated mode of writing. 
Hence, the eye being but little habituated to marks of parenthesis, 
there is a growing tendency to dispense with them, even when the 
structure of a sentence demands their insertion. Those intermediate 
expressions, indeed, which are less harsh or abrupt, or do not hinder 
the flow of the sentence into which they are thrown, are more easily 
read by means of commas than with the help of marks of parenthe- 
sis ; but, on the other hand, it is evident, that a whole sentence, or a 
part of a sentence, introduced into the body of another, with which 
it does riot harmonize, is more clearly distinguished, and that the eye 
is better able to connect the main portions, when the proper paren- 
thetical marks are introduced. — See pp. 64, 65. 



168 MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 

RULE. 

Words thrown obliquely into the Body of a Sentence. 

The marks of parenthesis enclose only those words 
which break the unity of the sentence into which they 
are thrown, and which may therefore be omitted with- 
out injury to its sense or its construction. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The Egyptian style of architecture (see Dr. Pocock, not his discourses, but 

his prints) was apparently the mother of the Greek. 

2. If we exercise right principles (and we cannot have them unless we exer- 

cise them), they must be perpetually on the increase. 

BEIAKKS. 

a. If a point would not be required between those parts of a 
sentence in which a parenthesis occurs, none should be used along 
with the parenthetical marks; as, " Are you still (I fear you are) fai 
from being comfortably settled?" Here these marks are unac- 
companied by any point, because, in its simple state, the sentence 
would be without it; as, " Are you still far from being comfortably 
settled?" 

b. But, when a comma or any other point is necessary where the 
incidental clause is thrown in, it should be placed after the last mark 
of parenthesis; as, "Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret 
to the proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action 
among men." Some writers would punctuate this and similar sen- 
tences with the same point before each of the marks ; as, " Left now 
to himself, (malice could not wish him a worse adviser,) he resolves on 
a desperate project." But the former mode of pointing is preferable, 
as it connects the parenthesis more closely with the preceding part 
of the sentence, to which it is usually most related. 

c. Sometimes the parenthetical portion of a sentence is designed 
to express either inquiry or an emotion of wonder, astonishment, 
delight, &c, when the main passage is in its nature affirmative. In 
cases of this kind, the point required, if there were no parenthesis, 
is to be inserted before the Jlrst mark under consideration, and that 
which belongs to the enclosed portion before the second; as, " While 



WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE. ] 69 

the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men, (and why 
should he not desire it?) he disdains to receive then good-will by 
dishonorable means." 

d. On the other hand, the parenthesis is sometimes explanatory 
or affirmative ; and the portion of the sentence with which it is con- 
nected, interrogative. Thus : " The righteousness which is of faith 
Bpeaketh on this wise: Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend 
into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above;) or, Who 
shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from 
the dead.) But what saith it?" In this passage, the points iised 
with the marks of parenthesis are applied differently from those 
inserted in the example illustrating Remark c ; but the principle is 
the same. 

e. Before the first parenthetical mark, however, no point should 
be used, if not required in case the parenthetical words were omit- 
ted; as, "The rocks (hard-hearted varlets!) melted not into tears, 
nor did the trees hang their heads in silent sorrow." 

f. Occasionally, the parenthesis is so little connected with the 
portion that follows it, that a period is required before the last mark, 
though no point whatever, or only a comma, is necessary to unite 
the parts before and after the parenthesis; as, — 

The path to bliss abounds with many a snare : 

Learning is one, and wit, however rare. 

The Frenchman, first in literary fame, 

(Mention him, if you please. Yoltaire? — The same.) 

With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied, 

Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died. 

g. Though, strictly speaking, a parenthesis is an interruption of 
the sense of a passage, yet the marks indicating it may sometimes 
be used to enclose a word, phrase, or clause, placed at the end of a 
sentence ; as, " The next night we were introduced at the Prince 
of Craon's assembly (he has the chief power in the grand duke's 
absence). The princess," &c. But such a mode of punctuation is 
seldom needed in a style characterized either by unity or elegance. 

7j. In the Scriptures, particularly in the Letters of the Apostle 
Paul, parentheses are found consisting of distinct sentences, which 
require to be separated by full points from the context, as in the 
following example: " Brethren, be followers together of me, and 
mark them who walk so as ye have us for an ensample. (For many 
walk, of whom I have told you often, and now tell you even weeping, 
that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ ; whose end is destruc- 



170 MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 

tion, whose god is their belly, and whose glory is in their shame ; who 
mind earthly things.) For our conversation is in heaven ; from 
whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ." 

i. In reports of speeches, where a particular reference is some- 
times made either to the present or a former speaker, or where the 
sense of the auditors is expressed by approbation or disapprobation, 
it is usual to enclose the inserted words within marks of parenthesis ; 
as, " The lucid exposition which has been made of the object of the 
meeting by the Eight Keverend Bishop (M'llvaine) lightens the task 
of recommending it to an audience like this. I do not know but I 
should act more advisedly to leave his cogent and persuasive state- 
ment to produce its natural effect, without any attempt on my part 
to enforce it. (No.)" 

j. Some writers would put within parenthetical marks such 
words as are thrown into sentences to correct grammatical errors; 
as, "I am now as well as when you was (were) here." But, as will 
be shown hereafter, it is better to use brackets, that the language 
introduced may be clearly distinguished from the original; as (to 
take the same example), " I am now as well as when you was [were] 
here." 

h. Sometimes marks of parenthesis are used to enclose an ex- 
pression standing apart from the context, and added by way of 
explanation, or in reference to some other passage. Examples 
of this kind may be seen in the " Exercises to be written," which 
occur in the present treatise. The same marks are also used, par- 
ticularly in dictionaries and in didactic and scientific works, to 
enclose the Arabic figures or the letters of the alphabet, when enu- 
merating definitions of words, or subjects treated of; as, "(A.) The 
unlaAvfulness of suicide appears from the following considerations: 
(1.) Suicide is unlaAvful on account of its general consequences. 
(2.) Because it is the duty of the self-murderer to live in the world, 
and be useful in it. (3.) Because he deprives himself of all further 
opportunity to prepare for happiness in a future state." But, unless 
it is necessary to distinguish the letters or figures from the simpler 
modes of specification, the marks of parenthesis are better omitted. 

I. When a parenthetical expression is short, or coincides with the 
rest of the sentence, the marks of parenthesis may be omitted, and 
commas used instead ; as, " Every star, if we may judge by analogy, 
is a sun to a system of planets." The intervening words says I, says 
fee, and others of a similar character, should all be written only with 
commas. — See p. 65, Remark c. 



WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE- 171 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

Show how the Rule and the Remarks apply to the punctuation of these 
sentences •• — 

I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an 
air of pity. 

The Tyrians were the first (if we may believe what is told us by 
writers of high antiquity) who learned the art of navigation. 

Pleasure (whene'er she sings, at least) 's a siren, 
That lures, to flay alive, the young beginner. 

The profound learning and philosophical researches of Sir Wil- 
liam Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) were the 
wonder and admiration of his contemporaries. 

Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know) : 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

Whether writing prose or verse (for a portion of the work is in 
prose), the author knows both what to blot, and when to stop. 

Do we, then (for this one question covers the whole ground of 
this subject), — do we observe the strict conditions of our vast and 
unsurpassably momentous work ? 

The most remote country, towards the East, of which the Greeks 
had any definite knowledge (and their acquaintance with it was, at 
the best, extremely imperfect), was India. 

While they wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?) 
they disdain dishonorable means. 

I am so ill at present, (an illness of my own procuring last night: 
who is perfect?) that nothing but your very great kindness could 
make me write. 

She had managed this matter so well, (oh, how artful a woman 
she was!) that my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was 
in danger. 

Perhaps (for who can guess the effects of chance ?) 
Here Hunt may box, or Mahomet may dance. 

Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts!) 
the fatal consequences of a wicked life. 

Edward, lo ! to sudden fate 

(Weave we the woof: the thread is spun.) 

Half of thy heart we consecrate. 

(The web is wove ; the work is done.) 



172 MARKS OP PARENTHESIS. 

The air was mild as summer, all corn was off the ground, and 
the sky-larks were singing aloud (by the way, I saw not one at 
Keswick, perhaps because the place abounds in birds of prey). 
She was one 
Fit for the model of a statuary 

(A race of mere impostors when all's done: 
I've seen much finer women, ripe and real, 
Than all the nonsense of their stone ideal). 

A certain man was sick, named Lazarus,' of Bethany, the town 
of Mary and her sister Martha. (It was that Mary who anointed 
the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair, whose 
brother Lazarus was sick.) Therefore his sisters sent unto him, 
saying, Lord, behold, he whom thou lovest is sick. 

From an original and infinitely more lofty and intellectual state 
of existence, there remains to man, according to the philosophy of 
Plato, a dark remembrance of divinity and perfection. 

Yet, in the mere outside of nature's works, if I may so express 
myself, there is a splendor and a magnificence to which even untu 
tored minds cannot attend without great delight. 

" You say," said the judge, " that the bag you lost had a hundred 
and ten dollars in it? " — " Yes, sir." — " Then," replied the judge, 
" this cannot be your bag, as it contained but a hundred dollars." 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Introduce the marks of parenthesis into their respective places: — 

Not a few are the incitements of the working classes would they 
were greater! to the accumulation of property, and even to the 
investment of land. (Eemark e.) 

The finest images which Joseph Hall conjures up and many of 
them are wonderfully fine never displace the great truths for the 
sake of which they are admitted. (Kemark a.) 

There is nothing that we call a good which may not be converted 
into a curse that is, nothing that is providential or external, and not 
of the soul; nor is there an evil of that nature which is not tho- 
roughly a good. (Kemark b.) 

There is a power have you not felt it? in the presence, conversa- 
tion, and example of a man of strong principle and magnanimity, to 
lift us, at least for the moment, from our vulgar and tame habits of 
thought, and to kindle some generous aspirations after the excel- 
lence which we were made to attain. (Eemarks e, I.) 



WORDS THROWN INTO A SENTENCE. 173 

Under God, and by those spiritual aids which are ever vouchsafed 
in exact proportion to our endeavoi-s to obtain them, how gracious 
and glorious is this truth ! we are morally and religiously, as well as 
intellectually, the makers of ourselves. (Remark c.) 

Sir, I hope the big gentleman that has just sat down Mr. Francis 
Archer will do me the justice to believe, that, as I receive little 
satisfaction from being offended, so I am not sedulous to find out 
cause for offence. Applause. (Remark i.) 

I mention these instances, not to undervalue science it would be 
folly to attempt that; for science, when true to its name, is true 
knowledge, but to show that its name is sometimes wrongfully 
assumed, and that its professors, when not guided by humility, may 
prove but misleading counsellors. (Remark b.) 

And he said unto them that stood by, Take from him the pound, 
and give it to him that hath ten pounds. And they said unto him, 
Lord, he hath ten pounds. For I say unto you, that unto every one 
who hath shall be given; and from him that hath not, even that 
which he hath shall be taken away from him. (Remarks Z, A.) 

" Young master was alive last Whitsuntide," said the coachman. 
" Whitsuntide ! alas ! " cried Trim, extending his right arm, and falling 
instantly into the same attitude in which he read the sermon, " what 
is Whitsuntide, Jonathan " for that was the coachman's name, " or 
Shrovetide, or any other tide or time, to this ? " (Remark &.) 

No lesson of a practical kind and all lessons ought to be practical 
requires to be so often repeated as that which enjoins upon the mind 
a state of passivity ; for what an electrical thing is it ! How does it 
dart forth after this and that, flitting from sweet to sweet for it never 
willingly tastes of bitter things, and "feeding itself without fear" I 
(Remarks a, b.) 

Inqufring the road to MMington, I addressed him by the name of 
Honesty. The fellow whether to show his wit before his mistress, 
or whether he was displeased with my familiarity, I cannot tell 
directed me to follow a part of my face which, I was well assured, 
could be no guide to me, and that other parts would follow of con- 
sequence. (Remarks a, b.) 

Socrates has often expressly said, that he considered human life 
in general and without doubt the state of the world in his day must 
have eminently tended to make him so consider it in the light of an 
imprisonment of the soul, or of a malady under which the nobler 
spirit is condemned to linger, until it be set free and purified by the 
healing touch of death. (Remark a.) 



i74 



Sect. III. — THE DASH. 



The Dash [ — ] is a straight horizontal line, used 
for the purposes specified in the following rules. 

REMARKS. 

a. Notwithstanding the advantages resulting from the proper use 
of the dash, the most indistinct conceptions have been formed in 
regard to its nature and its applications. Many authors, some of 
them of high standing in the literary world, as well as a majority 
of letter-writers, are wont to employ this mark so indiscriminately 
as to prove that they are acquainted neither with its uses, nor with 
those of the other points whose places it is made to supply. Some 
use it instead of a comma; others, instead of a semicolon; not a 
few, where the colon is required ; and a host, between every sentence 
and after every paragraph. Others go even further, by introducing 
it between the most commonplace words and phrases, apparently to 
apprise the reader, through the medium of his eye, what perhaps be 
could not discover by his judgment, that the composition before him 
is distinguished for brilliance of diction, tenderness of sentiment, or 
force of thought. But surely the unnecessary profusion of straight 
lines, particularly on a printed page, is offensive to good taste, is an 
index of the dasher's profound ignorance of the art of punctuation, 
and, so far from helping to bring out the sense of an author, is better 
adapted for turning into nonsense some of his finest passages. 

b. From these abuses in the application of the dash, some writers 
have strongly questioned its utility in any way as a sentential mark. 
So long, however, as modes of thought are different, and the style 
of composition corresponds with tbe peculiarities of an author's 
mind, so long will it be necessary occasionally to use the dash. 
The majestic simplicity of Scripture language may dispense with the 
use of this mark; but the affected and abrupt style of a Sterne, 
the broken and natural colloquialisms of a Shakspeare, the diffusive 
eloquence of a Chalmers, and the parenthetical inversions of a 
Bentham or a Brougham, will scarcely admit of being pointed only 
with the more common and grammatical stops. 



BROKEN AND EPIGRAMMATIC SENTENCES. 17o 

RULE I. 

Broken and Epigrammatic Sentences. 

The dash is used where a sentence breaks off ab- 
ruptly, and the subject is changed ; where the sense is 
suspended, and is continued after a short interruption ; 
where a significant or long pause is required ; and 
where there is an unexpected or epigrammatic turn in 
the sentiment. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band? Was there 

ever — but I scorn to boast. 

2. Then the eye of a child — who can look unmoved into that " well unde- 

nted," in which heaven itself seems to be reflected? 

3. You have given the command to a person of illustrious birth, of ancient 

family, of innumerable statues, but — of no experience. 

4. Herb lies the great — False marble ! where ? Nothing but sordid dust 

lies here. 

REMARKS. 

a. In the preceding examples, no grammatical point is used with 
the dash, because, in the first two and the last one, none would seem 
to be required if the sentences broken off had been finished; and 
because, in the third, the word "but," before the mark showing the 
suspensive pause, is intimately connected in sense with the phrase 
that follows it. But if the parts of a sentence, between which the 
pause of suspension is to be made, are susceptible of being gram- 
matically divided, their proper point should be inserted before the 
dash; as, " He sometimes counsel takes, — and sometimes snuff." 

b. Passages of the following kind, in which an unfinished ques- 
tion is taken up immediately afterwards in an alternate form, may 
be brought under the operation of the present rule ; the dash, with 
a comma before it, being placed after the commencing portion of the 
sentence : " Who could best describe to you a country, — he who 
had travelled its entire surface, or he who had just landed on its 
shores? Who could best breathe into you the spirit of Christian 
love, — he who had scarcely learned to control his own passions, oi 
Jesus of Nazareth? " 



176 THE DASH. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 
Why are dashes inserted in the following sentences 7 — 

Men will wrangle for religion, write ibr it, fight for it, any thing 
but — live for it. 

Greece, Carthage, Eome, — where are they ? The pages of his- 
tory — how is it that they are so dark and sad ? 

If you will give me your attention, I will show you — but stop ! 
I do not know that you wish to see. 

Leonidas, Cato, Phocion, Tell, — one peculiarity marks them all: 
they dared and suffered for their native land. 

If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh, how fallen! 
how degraded ! 

The good woman was allowed by everybody, except her husband, 
to be a sweet-tempered lady — when not in liquor. 

I take — eh ! oh ! — as much exercise — eh ! — as I can, Madam 
Gout. You know my sedentary state. 

Hast thou — but how shall I ask a question which must bring 
tears into so many eyes ? 

When Jesus saw his mother, and the disciple standing by whom 
he loved, he saith unto his mother, Woman, — behold — thy son ! 
Then saith he to the disciple, Behold — thy mother ! 

When the poor victims were bayoneted, clinging round the knees 
of the soldiers, would my friend — but I cannot pursue the strain of 
my interrogation. 

" Lord Cardinal! if thou think'st on heaven's bliss, 
Hold up thy hand ; make signal of that hope." — 
He dies, and makes no sign. 

Approaching the head of the bed, where my poor young com- 
panion, with throat uncovered, was lying, with one hand the monster 
grasped his knife, and with the other — ah, cousin ! — with the othei 
he seized — a ham. 

Good people all, with one accord, 

Lament for Madam Blaize, 
Who never wanted a good word — 

From those who spoke her praise. 

A "Hamlet," a "Paradise Lost," and a St. Peter's Church, — 
are they not, each after its kind, creations to which nothing can be 
added, and from which nothing can be taken away, without disturb- 
ance of their serene, absolute completeness ? 



BROKEN AND EPIGRAMMATIC SENTENCES. 177 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
In the following sentences, insert dashes wherever necessary : — 

"I forgot my" "Your portmanteau?" hastily interrupted 
Thomas. " The same." 

Horror hurst the bands of sleep ; hut my feelings words are too 
weak, too powerless, to express them. 

To reward men according to their worth alas ! the perfection of 
this, we know, amounts to the millennium. 

" Please your honor," quoth Trim, " the Inquisition is the vilest " 
M Prithee, spare thy description, Trim. I hate the very name of it," 
said my father. 

Frankness, suavity, tenderness, benevolence, breathed through 
their exercise. And his family But he is gone: that noble heart 
beats no more. 

Thou dost not mean 

No, no : thou wouldst not have me make 

A trial of my skill upon my child ! 

What beside a few mouldering and brittle ruins, which time is 
imperceptibly touching down into dust, what, beside these, remains 
of the gloiy, the grandeur, the intelligence, the supremacy, of the 
Grecian republics, or the empire of Rome ? 

In thirty years the western breeze had not fanned his blood: he 
had seen no sun, no moon, in all that time ; nor had the voice of 
friend or kinsman breathed through his lattice. His children but 
here my heart began to bleed, and I was forced to go on with another 
part of the portrait. 

The people lifted up their voices, and blessed the good St. Nicho- 
las; and, from that time forth, the sage Van Kortland was held in 
more honor than ever for his great talent at dreaming, and was 
pronounced a most useful citizen and a right good man when he 
was asleep. 

I now solemnly declare, that, so far as personal happiness is con- 
cerned, I would infinitely prefer to pass my life as a member of the 
bar, in the practice of my px-ofession, according to the ability which 
God has given me, to that life which I have led, and in which I have 
held places of high trust, honor, respectability, and obloquy. 

At church, in silks and satins new, 

With hoop of monstrous size, 
She never slumbered in her pew 

But when she shut her eyes. 
12 



178 THE DASH. 

RULE II. 

A Concluding Clause on which other Expressions depend. 

A dash should be used after several words or ex- 
pressions, when these constitute a nominative which 
is broken off, and resumed in a new form ; and after 
a long member, or a series of phrases or clauses, when 
they lead to an important conclusion. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. That patriotism which, catching its inspirations from the immortal 
God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below all lesser, grovelling, 
personal interests and feelings, animates and prompts to deeds of self-sacri- 
fice, of valor, of devotion, and of death itself, — that is public virtue; that 
is the noblest, the sublimest, of all public virtues. 

2. When ambition practises the monstrous doctrine of millions made for 
individuals, their playthings, to be demolished at their caprice; sporting 
wantonly with the rights, the peace, the comforts, the existence, of nations, 
as if their intoxicated pride would, if possible, make God's earth itself their 
football, — is not the good man indignant? 

3. The infinity of worlds, and the narrow spot of earth which we call our 
country or our home ; the eternity of ages, and the few hours of life ; the 
almighty power of God, and human nothingness, — it is impossible to think 
of these in succession, without a feeling like that which is produced by the 
sublimest eloquence. 

REMARKS. 

a. Instead of a comma and a dash, which are used in these exam- 
ples immediately before the finishing clause of the sentence, some 
writers and printers would insert a semicolon or a colon; but the 
punctuation adopted above seems to exhibit the construction and 
sense to more advantage, and to be more in harmony with the 
rhetorical character of such passages. 

b. On the other hand, many would put dashes, in the third 
example, instead of the semicolons which we have introduced, The 
mode of punctuation here exhibited seems to be preferable, on 
account of its greater definiteness ; showing, as it does, by the 
insertion, between the particulars of the compound series, of a point 
different from that used before the last portion of the sentence, both 
the similarities and the distinction which exist between its various 
parts. — See p. 120, Rule ; p. 121, c, e, f. 



A CONCLUDING CLAUSE. 179 

ORAL EXERCISE. 
State why dashes are inserted in the following sentences : — 

To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold 
what there is of true in the old, — let this be our endeavor. 

At school and at college, the great vision of Rome broods over the 
mind with a power which is never suspended or disputed : her great 
men, her beautiful legends, her history, the height to which she rose, 
and the depth to which she fell, — these make up one-half of a stu- 
dent's ideal world. 

The noble indignation with which Emmett repelled the charge of 
treason against his country, the eloquent vindication of his name, 
and his pathetic appeal to posterity, hi the hopeless hour of condem- 
nation, — all these entered deeply into every generous bosom ; and 
even his enemies lamented the stern policy that dictated his exe- 
cution. 

That gush of human sympathy which brought tears into Charles 
Lamb's eyes, when he mingled in the living tide which pours through 
the streets of London, and he felt his heart beat responsive to the 
warm pulse of joy as it throbbed past him, — what was it but 
the vivid consciousness of God ; the breath of the Father, softening the 
bosom over which it swept, and filling it with his own merciful ten- 
derness towards the great family of man ? 

The grasp of a child's little hand around one of our fingers; its 
mighty little crow, when excited by the playfulness of its nurse; 
its manful spring upon the little woolpack legs that refuse to bear its 
weight, — are all traits of more or less pleasantness. Every step in 
the attainment of phj'sical power; every new trait of intelligence, 
as they one by one arise in the infantine intellect, like the glory 
of night, starting star by star into the sky, — is hailed with a heart- 
burst of rapture and surprise, as if we had never known any thing 
so clever or so captivating before. 

The affections which spread beyond ourselves, and stretch fai 
into futurity; the workings of mighty passions, which seem to arm 
the soul with an almost superhuman energy; the innocent and 
irrepressible joy of infancy ; the bloom and buoyancy and dazzling 
hopes of youth; the throbbings of the heai*t, when it first wakes to 
love, and dreams of a happiness too vast for earth; woman, with 
her beauty and grace and gentleness, and fulness of feeling, and 
depth of affection, and blushes of purity, and the tones and looks 
which only a mother's heart can inspire, — these are all poetical. 



180 THE DASH. 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Let dashes be introduced into these sentences, in accordance with the Rule : — 

The collision of mind with mind; the tug and strain of intel- 
lectual wrestling; the tension of every mental fibre, as the student 
reaches forth to take hold of the topmost pinnacle of thought ; the 
shout of joy that swells up from gladsome voices, as he stands upon 
the summit, with error under his feet, these make men. 

The modest flower, nestling in the meadow-grass ; the happy tree, 
•as it laughs and riots in the wind; the moody cloud, knitting its 
brow in solemn thought ; the river that has been flowing all night 
long; the sound of the thirsty earth, as it drinks and relishes the 
rain, these things are as a full hymn when they flow from the melody 
of nature, but an empty rhythm when scanned by the finger of art. 

If we would see the foundations laid broadly and deeply on which 
the fabric of this country's liberties shall rest to the remotest gene- 
rations; if we would see her carry forward the work of political 
reformation, and rise the bright and morning star of freedom over 
a benighted world, let us elevate the intellectual and moral character 
of every class of our citizens, and especially let us imbue them 
thoroughly with the principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ. 

Above all the fret and tumult of actual existence, above the 
decrees of earth's nominal sovereigns, above all the violence and 
evil which render what is called history so black a record of folly 
and crime, above all these, there have ever been certain luminous 
ideas, pillars of fire in the night of time, which have guided and 
guarded the great army of humanity, in its slow and hesitating, but 
still onward, progress in knowledge and freedom. 

When, at God's decree, human greatness from all its state falls 
to the ground like a leaf; when death, usually doing its work in 
silence, seems to cry out over the bier of the high and distinguished ; 
when some figure, that has moved with imposing tread in our sight, 
towers still more out of the dark valley; when the drapery of mourn- 
ing unrolls itself from private chambers to line the streets, darken 
the windows, and hang the heavens in black ; when the stroke of the 
bell adds a sabbath solemnity to the days of the week, and the boom 
of guns, better fired over the dead than at the living, echoes all 
through our territory ; while the wheels of business stop, and labor 
leans its head, and trade foregoes its gains, and communication, 
save on one theme, ceases, we may well ask the meaning and 
cause. 



A CONCLUDING CLAUSE. 181 

Insert both semicolons and dasJies in their respective places s — 

Wherever on this earth an understanding is active to know 
and serve the truth wherever a heart beats with kind and pure and 
generous affections wherever a home spreads its sheltering wing 
over husband and wife, and parent and child, there, under every 
diversity of outward circumstance, the true worth and dignity and 
peace of man's soul are within reach of all. 

When, in addition to the mere spectacle and love of nature, there 
is a knowledge of it too when the laws and processes are under- 
stood which surround us with wonder and beauty every day when 
the great cycles are known, through which the material creation 
passes without decay, then, in the immensity of human hopes, there 
appears nothing which need stagger faith it seems no longer strange 
that the mind which interprets the material creation should survive 
its longest period, and be admitted to its remoter realms. 

The infinite importance of what he has to do the goading convic- 
tion that it must be done the utter inability of doing it the dreadful 
combination, in his mind, of both the necessity and incapacity the 
despair of crowding the concerns of an age into a moment the 
impossibility of beginning a repentance which should have been 
completed, of setting about a peace which should have been con- 
cluded, of suing for a pardon which should have been obtained, 
all these complicated concerns without strength, without time, with- 
out hope with a clouded memory, a disjointed reason, a wounded 
spirit, undefined terrors, remembered sins, anticipated punishment, an 
angiy God, an accusing conscience, all together intolerably augment 
the sufferings of a body which stands in little need of the insupporta- 
ble burthen of a distracted mind to aggravate its torments. 

If thou art a child, and hast ever added a sorrow to the soul, or 
a furrow to the silvered brow, of an affectionate parent if thou art a 
husband, and hast ever caused the fond bosom that ventured its 
whole happiness in thy arms to doubt one moment of thy kindness 
or thy truth if thou art a friend, and hast ever wronged, in thought, 
word, or deed, the spirit that generously confided in thee if thou art 
a lover, and hast ever given one unmerited pang to that true heart 
that now lies cold and still beneath thy feet, then be sure that every 
unkind look, every ungracious word, every ungentle action, will 
come thronging back upon thy memory, and knocking dolefully at 
thy soul then be sure that thou wilt He down sorrowing and repentant 
on the grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the unavailing 
tear, more deep, more bitter, because unheard and unavailing. 



182 THE DASH. 

RULE III. 
The Echo, or Words repeated Rhetorically. 

The dash is used before what is termed by elocu- 
tionists the echo ; that is, before a word or phrase 
repeated in an exclamatory or an emphatic manner. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly brought up, 
in the tent of my father, that most excellent general — shall I, the conqueror 
of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps 
themselves — shall I compare myself with this half-year captain? — a cap- 
tain, before whom should one place the two armies without their ensigns, I 
am persuaded he would not know to which of them he is consul. 

2. Newton was a Christian ; — Newton! whose mind burst forth from the 
fetters cast by nature on our finite conceptions ; — Newton ! whose science 
was truth, and the foundation of whose knowledge of it was philosophy; not 
those visionary and arrogant presumptions which too often usurp its name, 
but philosophy resting on the basis of mathematics, which, like figures, can- 
not lie; — Newton! who carried the line and rule to the utmost barriers of 
creation, and explored the principles by which, no doubt, all created matter 
is held together and exists. 

REMARKS. 

a. Before the iteration of the words " shall I," in the first example, 
dashes are put without any other point, to show that what precedes 
is unfinished. After the expression, " this half-year captain," a note 
of interrogation is placed, because the question terminates here. 

b. In the second example, semicolons are introduced before the 
dashes, in order to separate with greater clearness the various mem- 
bers, some of which are divisible into clauses. But, in the more 
simple kinds of sentences (as in the first five under the Oral Exer- 
cise, p. 183), a comma will be sufficient before the dash. 

c. After expressions of the kind under consideration, it is seldom 
necessary to put the exclamatory mark ; as, " Edmund Burke was a 
man who added to the pride, not merely of his country, but of his 
species; — a man who robed the very soul of inspiration in the 
splendors of a pure and overpowering eloquence." The construction 
of the language used, and the nature of the sentiment, will readily 
indicate what point, if any, should be inserted. 



THE ECHO. 183 

d. When a parenthesis is introduced before an iterated expression, 
the dash should both precede and follow the parenthetical marks; 
as, — 

When I am old — (and, oh, how soon 
Will life's sweet morning yield to noon, 
And noon's broad, fervid, earnest light 
Be shaded in the solemn night ! 
Till like a story well-nigh told 
Will seem my life, when I am old), — 
When I am old, this breezy earth 
Will lose for me its voice of mirth ; 
The streams will have an undertone 
Of sadness not by right their own. 

e. The dash is also sometimes used before that which is merely 
ail echo of the thought previously expressed; or, in other words, 
when the same idea is repeated in a different form in the same 
sentence ; as, " Our own nature is the first and nearest of all reali- 
ties, — the corner-stone of the entire fabric of truth." In many of 
these passages, however, when they are of a less rhetorical nature, 
the dash may be omitted; as, "There is nothing more prejudicial 
to the grandeur of buildings than to abound in angles; a fault 
obvious in many, and owing to an inordinate thirst for variety, 
which, whenever it prevails, is sure to leave very little true taste." 



ORAL EXERCISE. 

Explain the reason why dashes are inserted in these sentences i — 

You speak like a boy, — like a boy who thinks the old, gnarled 
oak can be twisted as easily as the young sapling. 

Never is -virtue left without sympathy, — sympathy dearer and 
tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it, and proved its fidelity. 

There are, indeed, I acknowledge, to the honor of the human 
kind, — there are persons in the world who feel that the possession 
of good dispositions is their best reward. ' 

The faithful man acts not from impulse, but from conviction, — 
conviction of duty, — the most stringent, solemn, and inspiring con- 
viction that can sway the mind. 

All great discoveries, not purely accidental, will be gifts to in- 
sight; and the true man of science will be he who can best ascend 
into the thoughts of God, — he who burns before the throne in the 
clearest, purest, mildest light of reason. 



184 THE DASH. 

Man is led to the conception of a Power and an Intelligence snpe 
rior to his own, and adequate to the production and maintenance of 
all that he sees in nature ; — a Power and Intelligence to which he 
may well apply the term infinite. 

Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty as to give ts 
sanction to measures thus obtruded and forced upon them ? — mea- 
sures, my lords, which have reduced this late-flourishing kingdom 
to scorn and contempt. 

He hears the raven's cry; and shall he not hear, and will he not 
avenge, the wrongs that his nobler animals suffer? — wrongs that 
cry out against man, from youth to age, in the city and in the field, 
by the way and by the fireside. 

The voices in the waves are always whispering to Florence, in 
their ceaseless murmuring, of love; — of love eternal and illimita- 
ble, not bounded by the confines of this world or by the end of time, 
but ranging still, beyond the sea, beyond the sky, to the invisible 
country far away. 

'Twas ray cradle in childhood, — that ocean so proud ; 
And in death let me have its bright waves for my shroud; 
Let no sad tears be shed, when I die, over me ; 
But bury me deep in the sea, — in the sea. 

Then I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their great-grand- 
mother Field once was, and how in her youth she was esteemed the 
best dancer — (here Alice's little right foot played an involuntary 
movement, till, upon my looking grave, it desisted) — the best 
dancer, I was saying, in the county, till a cruel disease, called a 
cancer, came, and bowed her down with pain; but it could never 
bend her good spirits, or make them stoop, but they were still upright, 
because she was so good and religious. 

Harriet complied, and read ; — read the eternal book for all the 
weary and the heavy-laden ; for all the wretched, fallen, and neglected 
of this earth ; — read the blessed history in which the blind, lame, 
palsied beggar, the criminal, the woman stained with shame, the 
shunned of all our dainty clay, have each a portion that no human 
pride, indifference, or sophistry, through all the ages that this world 
shall last, can take away, or by the thousandth atom of a grain 
reduce ; — read the ministry of Him who, through the round of 
human life, and all its hopes and griefs, from birth to death, from 
infancy to age, had sweet compassion for and interest in its every 
scene and stage, its every suffering and sorrow. 



THE ECHO. 185 

EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 
Let dashes be inserted before the echoes in the following- passages .- — 

We must take a wakeful and active interest, that seeks them out; 
an interest that examines into the causes of their degradation, and 
labors to raise them to a more just social position ; an interest that 
comes from faith in man as the child of God, and from faith in God 
as the heavenly Father; an interest that never despairs of the fallen 
or the lost, but makes Him who was the friend of publicans and 
sinners its model. 

Truth should be enshrined in our inmost hearts, and become the 
object of our fervent contemplation, our earnest desire and aspira- 
tion. Consecrate, above all things, truth, whatever prejudices it 
may proscribe, whatever advantages it may forfeit, and whatever 
privileges it may level ; truth, though its recompense should be the 
privations of poverty or the darkness of the dungeon ; truth, the first 
lesson for the child, and the last word of the dying ; truth, the world's 
regenerator, God's image on earth, the essence of virtue in the cha- 
racter, the foundation of happiness in the heart; truth, the whole 
truth, and nothing but the truth. 

It is the sorrow which draws sweetness from the affections, and 
is hallowed by conscience, the sorrow that mingles its sanctifying 
drop in the cup of virtuous love and pure-souled friendship, the 
sorrow which mortifies young ambition, and tempers presumptuous 
enthusiasm, the sorrow which makes us feel our weakness and in- 
efficiency, when we have put forth earnest efforts to serve the truth 
and aid human progress, this is the sorrow which chastens and exalts 
the spirit, and fills it with a noble seriousness, and binds it by holier 
ties to that ideal of perfection and blessedness which never perishes 
from the trust and the aspiration of the true servants of God. 

It remains with you, then, to decide, whether that freedom at 
whose voice the kingdoms of Europe awoke from the sleep of ages, 
to run a career of virtuous emulation in every thing great and good ; 
the freedom which dispelled the mists of superstition, and invited 
the nations to behold their God ; whose magic torch kindled the rays 
of genius, the enthusiasm of poetry, and the flame of eloquence; 
the freedom which poured into our lap opulence and arts, and 
embellished life with innumerable institutions and improvements, 
till it became a theatre of wonders ; it is for you to decide, whether 
this freedom shall yet survive, or be covered with a funeral pall, and 
wrapped in eternal gloom. 



186 THE DASH. 

EULE IV. 

A Parenthesis coalescing with the Main Passage. 

When parentheses or intermediate expressions, that 
easily coalesce with the construction of the sentences 
in which they occur, are separable into portions requir- 
ing points, dashes may be used instead of the common 
marks of parenthesis. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The whole deportment of a child is delightful. Its smile — always so 
ready when there is no distress, and so soon recurring when that distress has 
passed away — is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven heyond. 

2. The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without, — if not, as some 
philosophers have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet in a moral sense, — exist 
within us. 

EEMAKKS. 

a. When a sentence, being assertive, can be read without a point 
between the parts into which a parenthesis is introduced, — that 
is, on the supposition of its being excluded, — none will be requisite 
along with the dashes ; as in the first example under the rule, which, 
if the parenthesis were omitted, would read thus : " Its smile is like 
an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond." 

b. But when, without the parenthesis, such a sentence would 
require a comma or any other grammatical mark at the place where 
the parenthesis occurs, both the dashes must be preceded by that 
mark, as in the second example. 

c. The parenthetical portion, even though incapable of subdi- 
vision, is enclosed by dashes, when it contains an echo of what 
precedes, or is thrown in by way of explanation ; as, " It was under 
the influence of impulse — the impulse of nature on his own poetic 
spirit — that Burns went forth singing in glory and in joy on the 
mountain-side." 

d. If the parenthesis is expressive of inquiry or emotion, a note 
of interrogation or of exclamation should be used before the second 
dash, whatever may be the point, if any, required before the first ; 
as, "How little — may it not be? — the most considerate feel the 
import of a grateful acknowledgment to God!" "In conformity 



A COALESCING PARENTHESIS. 187 

■with a rule of the Trotters, - never to flinch from duty,' I stand 
here, not to make a speech, — for who would expect me to make a 
speech V — but to thank you for the honor you have done us, and to 
give you some reminiscences of the Trotter family." 

e. The following passage, which, as requiring a dash before the 
echoed word "not," belongs to Rule III., p. 182, should, though 
perhaps it does not contain a strictly parenthetical expression, 
have the same mark before the conjunction "but," in accordance 
with the examples under the present rule, in order to show the rela- 
tion of the first two larger portions of the sentence to the latter: 
" Luther entered Rome, not in the mood of the scholar or the poet, — 
not to study inscriptions, or muse over the ruins of fallen grandeur, 
— but with the burning zeal of a devout pilgrim, who hoped to find 
there a fountain which would slake the deep thirst of his soul." 

f. Though but partially embraced by the rule, the following is a 
sentence which requires for its elucidation a similar mode of pointing: 
" The finest displays of power, — such as those which delineate 
Prometheus blessing mankind, and defying the thunder of Jove, 
even when fastened to the barren rock, with the vulture tugging at 
his heart, — what are they but the principles which have animated 
men who have struck for freedom ; braving the dungeon, the stake, 
and the scaffold, in their enthusiasm for liberty, and their determina- 
tion to emancipate themselves and then* fellow-creatures?" Here, 
it will be seen, the nominative case is interrupted by the parenthesis, 
and then repeated in an interrogative form. (See Rule II., p. 178.) 
To exhibit this interruption and change, made with a view of im- 
parting intensity to the language, the parenthetical dashes, preceded 
each by a comma, are used. 

g. Where one parenthetical clause is contained within another, 
both of which should be distinctly perceived, that which is less 
connected in construction, whatever the order, may be enclosed by 
the usual marks, and the other set off by dashes, as in the following 
lines : — 

" Sir Smug," he cries (for lowest at the board — 

Just made fifth chaplain of his patron lord ; 

His shoulders witnessing, by many a shrug, 

How much his feelings suffered — sat Sir Smug), 

" Your office is to winnow false from true : 

Come, prophet, drink, and tell us what think you." 

h. For the merely grammatical mode of pointing parentheses and 
parenthetical expressions, see pp. 64, 65 ; 167-170. 



188 THE DASH. 

ORAL, EXERCISE. 
Show how these sentences exemplify the Rule and the Remarks (pp. 186-7) : — 

There are times — they only can understand who have known 
them — when passion is dumb, and purest love maintains her whole 
dominion. 

The true test of a great man — that, at least, which must secure 
his place among the highest order of great men — is his having been 
in advance of his age. 

In youth — that is to say, somewhere between the period of child- 
hood and manhood — there is commonly a striking development of 
sensibility and imagination. 

To Andersen — a young man of vivid fancy, fine senses, and 
cordial sympathies, who had been reared in the blessed air of 
renunciation — every thing in Italy was a delight. 

The magnificent creations of Southey's poetry — piled up, like 
clouds at sunset, in the calm serenity of his capacious intellect — 
have always been duly appreciated by poetical students and critical 
readers ; but by the public at large they are neglected. 

In pure description, — such as is not warmed by passion, or deep- 
ened by philosophical reflection, — Shelley is a great master. 

In the heathen world, — where mankind had no divine revelation, 
but followed the impulse of nature alone, — religion was often the 
basis of civil government. 

Demosthenes, Julius Csesar, Henry the Fourth of France, Lord 
Bacon, Sir Isaac Newton, Franklin, Washington, Napoleon, — dif- 
ferent as they were in their intellectual and moral qualities, — were 
all renowned as hard workers. 

When we look up to the first rank of genius, — to Socrates and 
Plato and Pythagoras, to Paul and Luther, to Bacon and Leibnitz 
and Newton, — we find they are men who bow before the infinite 
sanctities which their souls discern. 

There was a deep wisdom in the governing maxim of the old 
Catholic church, — though often, it must be confessed, meagrely 
understood and falsely applied, — that truth is to be found in a 
central point equally remote from divergent errors. 

The poetic temperament that had led Channing to the beach in 
Newport, and to the willow walk in Cambridge, — thrilling his soul 
with the sense of beauty, with yearnings to be free from imperfec- 
tion, and visions of good too great for earth, — was working strongly 
in him. 



A COALESCING PARENTHESIS. 189 

Truth, courage, and justice — those lion virtues that stand round 
the throne of national greatness — shape their blunt manners and 
their downright speech. 

Religion — who can doubt it ? — is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 

I wished — oh ! why should I not have wished ? — that all my 
fellow-men possessed the blessings of a benign civilization and a 
pure form of Christianity. 

And the ear, — that gathers unto its hidden chambers all music 
and gladness, — would you give it for a kingdom? 

As thus I mused amidst the various train 
Of toil-worn wanderers of the perilous main, 
Two sailors — well I marked them (as the heam 
Of parting day yet lingered on the stream, 
And the sun sunk behind the shady reach) — 
Hastened with tottering footsteps to the beach. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert in the following sentences the ■parenthetical dashes, with the points 
accompanying them when required : — 

In our dwellings and in concert-rooms, ay, and in opera-houses 
so the theme be pure and great there is preaching as surely as within 
church-walls. (Remark b.) 

Either there is a resemblance and analogy but how imperfect 
between the attributes of the Divinity and our conceptions of them, 
or we cannot have any conceptions at all. (Remark d.) 

It is no exaggeration to say, that Milton alone has surpassed if 
even he has surpassed some of the noble sonnets of Wordsworth, 
dedicated to liberty and inspired by patriotism. (Remark c.) 

It is when man is in his truest moods and these come never 
oftener than in his sorrows and self-communings that he finds him- 
self most in harmony with nature, and most rejoices in her kindly 
and wholesome influence. (Remark b.) 

When we read the maxims of La Rochefoucault which, false as 
they would be if they had been intended to give us a faithful 
universal picture of the moral nature of man, were unfortunately 
too faithful a delineation of the passions and principles that imme- 
diately surrounded their author, and met his daily view in the 
splendid scenes of vanity and ambitious intrigue to which his obser- 



190 THE DASH. 

vation was confined it is impossible not to feel, that, acute and subtle 
as they are, many of these maxims must have been only the expres- 
sion of principles which were floating, without being fixed in words, 
in the minds of many of his fellow-courtiers. (Remark b.) 

The gods of the Greeks those graceful forms which Homer drew 
in verse, and Phidias realized in marble were scarcely more irra- 
tional than the objects to which, in the name of Christianity, many 
have paid their homage. (Remark a.) 

When a people shall learn that its greatest benefactors and most 
important members are men devoted to the liberal instruction of all 
its classes to the work of raising to life its buried intellect it will 
have opened to itself the path of true glory. (Remark c.) 

The contest between Christianity and the heathenish philosophy 
between the old polytheism and the new belief, a poetical mythology 
and a religion of morality is the most remarkable intellectual contest 
which has ever been exhibited and determined among the human 
race. (Remark a.) 

Christianity which, as a reform lastingly affecting all the social 
relations of men, yet remains to be philosophically estimated (our 
limits forbid our entering upon that tempting field of inquiry) had 
sown the seeds whose fruit might supplement the pre-existing sys- 
tem. (Remark g.) 

With regard to the powers of speech those powers which the very 
second year of our existence generally calls into action, the exercise 
of which goes on at our sports, our studies, our walks, our very 
meals, and which is never long suspended, except at the hour of 
refreshing sleep how few surpass their fellow-creatures of common 
information and moderate attainments ! (Remark br) 

If we were to imagine present together, not a single small group 
only of those whom their virtues or talents had rendered eminent 
in a single nation, but all the sages and patriots of every country 
and period, without one of the frail and guilty contemporaries that 
mingled with them when they lived on earth ; if we were to imagine 
them collected together, not on an earth of occasional sunshine and 
alternate tempests like that which we inhabit, but in some still 
fairer world, in which the only variety of the seasons consisted in a 
change of beauties and delights a world in which the faculties and 
virtues that were originally so admirable continued still their glorious 
and immortal progress does it seem possible that the contemplation 
of such a scene, so nobly inhabited, should not be delightful to him 
who might be transported into it? (Remark b.) 



ELLIPSIS OF THE WORD " NxYMELY. " 191 

RULE V. 

Ellipsis of the Adverb " Namely" %c. 

The dash is commonly used where there is an ellipsis 
of such words as namely, that is, and others having a 
similar import. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first we come 

to, — Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton. 

2. Nicholas Copernicus was instructed in that seminary where it is always 

happy when any one can be well taught, — the family circle. 

3. Gray and Collins aimed at the dazzling imagery and magnificence of lyrical 

poetry, — the direct antipodes of Pope. 

REMARKS. 

a. This rule may be properly regarded as a branch of that on 
page 175, in reference to significant pauses; but it is here separately 
introduced, in consequence of its utility, and the frequency of its 
application to the purpose mentioned. 

b. In the first two examples, the adverb namely, and, in the third 
example, the words which are, might be expressed where the dash is 
inserted ; this mark being, in such cases, unnecessary. But it wiL 
readily be seen, that, as exhibited in the briefer mode and with the 
rhetorical mark, the sentences are more effective than they would 
be if the words understood were supplied. 

c. A comma is required before the dash, in accordance with the 
second branch of the rule, page 41, on words and phrases in appo- 
sition. The dash is annexed merely to lengthen the pause made in 
delivery. 

d. Should the dash be necessarily used often in the same page for 
other purposes, it may not be improper to omit it, and to substitute 
a colon or a semicolon for the comma and dash, before such a speci- 
fication of particulars as occurs in the first example under the rule. 

c. When words after which namely is understood are followed by 
a quotation or a remark making sense in itself, the comma and dash 
are better omitted, and a colon substituted in their place ; unless the 
quotation or remark commences a new paragraph, when a comma 
or colon and a dash are used, according to the degree of connection 
subsisting between the parts of the passage. — See page 138. 



192 THE DASH. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 
Why are dashes inserted in the following sentences ? — 

From an illusion of the imagination arises one of the most important 
principles in human nature, — the dread of death. 

We should be enterprising in the exercise of our own minds, and 
in exploring the great sources of truth, — nature, man, revelation. 

I am come to regard the world as an arena in which I have to do 
two things, — improve others, and improve myself. 

Kings and their subjects, masters and slaves, find a common level 
m two places, — at the foot of the cross, and in the grave. 

The essence of all poetry may be said to consist in three things, — 
invention, expression, inspiration. 

Angry thoughts canker the mind, and dispose it to the worst 
temper in the world, — that of fixed malice and revenge. 

There are two kinds of evils, — those which cannot be cured, and 
those which can. 

I see in this world two heaps, — one of happiness, and the other 
of misery. 

Amongst us men, these three things are a large part of our vir- 
tue, — to endure, to forgive, and ourselves to get pardon. 

The orations of Cassar were admired for two qualities which are 
seldom found together, — strength and elegance. 

Among uncivilized nations, only one profession is honorable, — 
that of arms. 

In 1813, Moore entered upon his noble poetical and patriotic 
task, — writing lyrics for the ancient music of his native country. 

Milton's life was a true poem; or it might be compared to an an- 
them on his own favorite organ, — high-toned, solemn, and majestic. 

Nearly all the evils that afflict the sons of men flow from one 
source, — wealth, or the appropriation of things to individuals and 
to societies. 

It is remarked by Kousseau, that every people in the ancient 
world that can be said to have had morals has respected the sex, — 
Sparta, Germany, Rome. 

The best shelter that the world affords us is the first, — the affec- 
tions into which we are born, and which are too natural for us to 
know their worth till they are disturbed. 

In my analysis of the nature of love, I have stated its two great 
elements, — a vivid pleasure in the contemplation of the object of 
regard, and a desire of the happiness of that object. 



ELLIPSIS OF THE WORD a NAMELY." 193 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert a comma and a dash where the ellipsis of the adverb " namely," or a 
similar expression, occurs in the following sentences .- — 

The more sympathies we gain or awaken for what is beautiful, 
by so much deeper will be our sympathy for that which is most 
beautiful the human soul. 

Many a brilliant reputation resembles a pageant showy and un- 
substantial, attracting the acclamations of the crowd, and forgotten 
as soon as it has passed. 

Faith builds, in the dungeon and the lazar-house, its sublimest 
shrines; and up, through roofs of stone, that shut up the eye of 
Heaven, ascends the ladder where the angels glide to and fro 
Prayer. 

The violator of the sacred laws of justice feels, that the unhappy 
effects of his own conduct have rendered him the proper object of 
the resentment and indignation of mankind, and of what is the 
natural consequence vengeance and punishment. 

If men would confine their talk to those subjects only which they 
understood, that which St. John informs us took place once in heaveu 
would happen very frequently on earth "silence for the space of 
half an hour." 

It is very difficult for those who, in early youth, have strug 
gled with extreme penury, and who have been suddenly raised to 
affluence, not to have at their heart what may seem like original 
constitutional avarice to those who do not reflect on its cause a love 
of money, when the love of money seems so little necessary to 
them. 

The tools of labor are a sceptre of higher empire than monarch 
ever swayed that of dominion over the earth and elements; they 
are the weapons wherewith man achieves the purest and most 
benignant of all conquests the subjugation of the powers of material 
nature to the service of humanity; and they are instruments also 
of the best of all worship that Avhich a fertilized earth sends up 
towards a gracious Heaven. 

Friend of my bosom, thou more than a brother, 
Why wert thou not born in my father's dwelling? 
So might we talk of the old familiar faces 
How some they have died, and some they have left me, 
And some are taken from me. All are departed ; 
All, all, are gone, the old familiar faces. 
13 



194 



THE DASH. 



RULE VI. 
Subheads, %-c, to Paragraphs. 

The dash should be inserted between a title and the 
subject-matter, and also between the subject-matter 
and the authority from which it is taken, when they 
occur in the same paragraph. 

EXAMPLE. 

Fidelity to God. — Whatever station or rank Thou shalt assign me, I will 
die ten thousand deaths sooner than abandon it. — Socrates. 

REMARKS. 

a. The dash is sometimes inserted between a question and an 
answer, when they come together in the same paragraph ; as, " Who 
created you? — God." 

b. So, also, the dash is useful to connect separate paragraphs, 
dialogues, &c, when it is deemed necessary to save room. Thus: — 

"How are you, Trepid? How do you feel to-day, Mr. Trepid?" — "A 
great deal worse than I was, thank you ; almost dead, I am obliged to you." 
— " Why, Trepid, what is the matter with you? " — " Nothing, I tell you, in 
particular; but a great deal is the matter with me in general." 

c. Some writers put a dash after the name of an interlocutor, when 
it precedes in the same line the language which he utters. But, as 
the name is usually distinguished from the sentiment by its being put 
in Italics or in small capitals, the dash is unnecessary; as, — 

Archbishop. What is your business with me, my friend? 
Oil Bias. I am the young man who was recommended to you by your 
nephew, Don Fernando. 

d. A dash is commonly inserted between the word chapter or 
section with its accompanying numeral, and the title of a subject, 
when they are placed in the same line. Thus : — 

SECT. LV. — THE POWER OP IMAGINATION. 

e. On the other hand, a dash is put after an expression connected 
in sense and construction with what follows, if the latter begins a 
new line ; as, " Occasionally, perhaps, he was — 

' Lofty and sour to them that loved him not ; 
But to those men that sought him, sweet as summer.' " 



OMISSION OF LETTERS. 195 

RULE VII. 

Omission of Letters, Figures, or Words. 

The dash is often used to denote an omission of 
letters or figures. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. By H ns ! for .... By Heavens ! 

2. Matt. ix. 1—6 Matt. ix. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 

3. The years 1855-56 The years 1855, 1856. 

REMARKS. 

a. With the exception of the dash in the ellipsis of figures, this 
mark may be made of various lengths, as directed by the taste of 
the writer or printer, or in proportion to the number of letters or 
words omitted. 

b. When, at the beginning or end of a poetical quotation, a por- 
tion is omitted, it is recommended that a blank be left, instead of 
using the dash ; the position of the lines sufficiently indicating the 
ellipsis; as, — 

Oh ! it is excellent 
To have a giant's strength. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Show how Hie two preceding Rules, and the Remarks under them, are applicable 
to the insertion of the dashes found in these sentences : — 

By the L ! madam, you wrong me, and the world shall know 

it. Though you have put me into darkness, and given your drunken 
cousin rule over me, yet have I the benefit of my senses as well as 
your ladyship. 

Canon the Sixth. — All words and phrases which are remarkably 
harsh and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, may justly 
be judged to merit degradation. — Jamieson: Grammar of Rhetoric, 
p. 64. 

Obsequies. — We celebrate noble obsequies to those we love, 
more by drying the tears of others than by hedding our own ; and 
the fairest funeral wreath we can hang on their tomb is not so fair 
as a fruit-offering of good deeds. — Richter. 



196 THE DASH. 

Q. What is the Scripture doctrine of progress? — A. Brethren, 
I count not myself to have apprehended ; but this one thing I do, 
forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth to those 
which are before, I press towards the mark for the prize of the high 
calling of God in Christ Jesus. (Phil. hi. 13 — 15.) 

Don. Good-morrow, Count Erizzo: you are early. 
Are you bound to the palace ? 

Eriz. Ay, Donato, — 

The common destination ; but I go 
With an old friend. 

Don. What, Celso, thou turned courtier? 

In the silence of evening, conscience has a distinct and audible 
voice. And for us, erring, sinning men, it is greatly wise to listen, — 

" To talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven, 
And how they might have borne more welcome news." 

A Soft Answer turneth away Wrath. — The Horse in the 
Pound, and the Cattle in the Field. — The horse of a pious man in 
Massachusetts happening to stray into the road, a neighbor of the 
man who owned the horse put him in the pound. Meeting the owner 
soon after, he told him what he had done, and added, "If ever I 
catch him in the road hereafter, I'll do just so again." — " Neighbor," 
replied the other, " not long since, I looked out of my window in the 
night, and saw your cattle in my mowing ground ; and I drove them 
out, and shut them in your yard; and VII do it again.' 1 '' Struck with 
the reply, the man liberated the horse from the pound, and paid the 
charges himself. — Anecdotes of Kindness and Philanthropy. 

SECT. CLXXVIII. — A CONSISTENT SERVANT. 

A very rich lady in Boston had in her employment a young man 
from the country. On certain occasions, he was instructed to 

inform any company who might ring at the door, that Mrs. was 

not at home. 

One day, John made his reply to an intimate friend of the lady, 
who shortly went away, leaving a card and a promise to call again. 

As the card was handed to Mrs. , she said, " John, what did you 

say to the lady? " — "I told her you were not at home." — " Well, 
John, I hope you did not laugh? " — " Oh, no! ma'am," said John; 
" 1 never laugh when I tell a lie." 



197 



CHAPTER IV. 

LETTER, SYLLABIC, AND QUOTATION POINTS. 



The points treated of in the two preceding chapters 
have been classified into two kinds, — 1. The gram- 
matical ; and, 2. The grammatical and rhetorical. As 
previously stated, they are used for the purpose of 
developing the sense of a composition, by exhibiting 
the various connections and constructions of words, 
phrases, and clauses ; and of aiding the delivery, by 
showing the nature of sentences, as affirmative, inter- 
rogative, emotional, parenthetic, suspensive, or broken. 
The marks to be considered in this chapter are — 

1. The Apostrophe [ ' ] 

2. The Hyphen [ - ] 

3. The Marks of Quotation . . . . [" "J 

These are put into a class different from the others, 
because, though they serve to bring out the sense and 
to aid a just delivery, they do not exhibit any analysis 
of sentences, or point out the relation of their parts to 
one another, but call the attention merely to letters 
or syllables, as do the Apostrophe and Hyphen, or to 
something foreign to the meaning and construction of 
the passages to which they are prefixed and annexed, 
as is the case with the Marks of Quotation. 



198 



Sect. I. — THE APOSTROPHE. 



The Apostrophe [ ' ] is a mark distinguished in 
appearance from a comma, only in being placed above 
the line ; but its uses are altogether different. 

RULE I. 

Elision of Letters, or Shortening of Words. 

The apostrophe is used, chiefly in poetry and in 
familiar dialogue, to denote the omission of a letter 
or of letters. 

EXAMPLES. 



I've . . abbreviated for . I have. 

'em them. 

i'the in the. 

o'er over. 

don't do not. 

'gainst against. 



he 's .... .he is. 

ne'er never. 

thou'rt thou art 

'tis it is. 

who'd who would 

you'll you will. 



REMARKS. 

a. A word pronounced in full should not be abbreviated with the 
apostrophe, except in headings to column-work, where saving of 
room is necessary, and where the full point at the end would not 
indicate the word intended. — See p. 149, Remark c. 

b. Though not, strictly speaking, abbreviations, the plurals of 
mere letters or of Arabic figures are formed by the insertion of an 
apostrophe before the s; as, "Mark all the a's and o's in your 
exercise." — "In this sum there are four 2's and three 5's." 

c. It was once a common practice, especially in verse, to write 
and print thd' and thro\ instead of though and through; but these 
abbreviated forms are now discontinued, for the very just reason 
that they do not shorten the pronunciation of the words, — the chief 
object for which abbreviations are used. To prevent, however, the 



ELISION OF LETTERS. 199 

turning of a line in poetry, so as to occupy the space of two, which is 
offensive to the eye, //to' and thro 1 may occasionally be thus printed. 

d. Borough, the termination of some proper names, is not un fre- 
quently contracted into bro or boro, either with or without the 
addition of an apostrophe; as, Marlbro, Soutliboro\ If the abbre- 
viation is made, the apostrophe should be used to indicate the 
omission of the last letters ; but, except in lines where room must 
be saved, it would be much better to write and print all such words 
in full; as, Marlborough. Ediiiboro' is a barbarous corruption of 
Edinburgh, and should never deface a printed page. 

e. The particle till, being a substitute for until, which is now 
seldom used, should not be preceded by an apostrophe. 

f. The mark under notice is erroneously used in the words to, 
the, heaven, power, every, threatening, and others of a similar nature, 
when written, as they frequently are in verse, V, th\ heav'n, povfr, 
etfry, threatening, &c. ; for, though apparently, in the full or un- 
elided form, making a syllable additional to the number of the feet 
required by the verse, they are never pronounced differently from 
the same words in prose, nor does this pronunciation at all affect the 
rhythm. Indeed no elocutionist or poet deserving of the name would 
read the phrases, " to attain perfection " and " the accomplished 
sofa," in the following lines, as if written tattain perfection, thaccom- 
plished sofa ; though, judging from the mode in which they were 
originally printed (" t' attain, th' accomplished"), a reader might 
imagine that this absurd pronunciation was requisite. The verse 
in which they occur should therefore stand thus : — 

So slow 
The growth of what is excellent ; so hard 
To attain perfection in this nether world. 
Thus, first, Necessity invented stools ; 
Convenience next suggested elbow-chairs ; 
And Luxury, the accomplished sofa next. 

g. It seems to have been the practice in former times to pro- 
nounce, as an additional syllable, the ed in the imperfect tense of 
verbs, in past participles, and in participial adjectives; and hence 
arose the propriety, in poetical works of a bygone age, of omitting 
the e in words of this sort, and of supplying its place with an apos- 
trophe, when the termination treated of coalesced in pronunciation 
with the primitive to which d or ed was attached. Now, however, 
that this syllable is not separately enunciated in prose, — except in 
learned, beloved, cursed, winged, when used as adjectives, and in some 



200 THE APOSTROPHE. 

instances where a combination of harsh consonants necessarily 
requires the ed always to be articulated as a syllable ; and except 
also in Sacred Scripture, portions of which should be read in a very 
solemn manner, — the propriety of supplying the place of the e with 
an apostrophe is exceedingly questionable. In many recent publica- 
tions, therefore, the mark of elision has been thrown aside in regard 
to such words, and a grave accent placed on the e in those only which 
are lengthened for the sake of the rhythm ; as will be seen in the 
following lines : — 

I praised the sun, whose chariot rolled 

On wheels of amber and of gold ; 

I praised the moon, whose softer eye 

Gleamed sweetly through the summer sky ; 

And moon and sun in answer said, 

" Our days of light are numbered.'''' 

Some writers, however, prefer to mark the additional syllable by an 
acute accent or a diaeresis on the vowel; as, mailed or brightened. 
But, as the acute accent is sometimes used in poetry to point out a 
change in the true accentuation of a word, — as aspect, instead of 
Aspect, — and the diaeresis to separate in pronunciation two vowels 
coming together, — as JDanae, — it would be better to appropriate in 
verse the grave accent to the lengthening of words ending in ed. 

h. In the preceding paragraph, we have endeavored to show the 
inutility of substituting the apostrophe for an e, in the termination 
ed, when pronounced in union with a preceding syllable. It may, 
however, be proper to admit, that many respectable authors and 
printers adopt a middle course in reference to the words under con- 
sideration. They always retain the e in the imperfect tense and 
perfect participle of those verbs whose infinitive ends in that letter, 
but in poetry use an apostrophe in the same forms of verbs, when 
the infinitive terminates with a consonant; as, "to grieve, grieved; 
to gain, gaiii'dy They also, as a matter of course, reject as useless 
the accent in such a word as numbered, when the ed forms an addi- 
tional syllable ; the e being retained as an exception to their general 
rule, in order to show that the ed does not coalesce with the pre- 
ceding syllable. The mode of using the vowel and the apostrophe, 
here adverted to, is exemplified in the following lines : — 

Ages elapsed ere Homer's lamp appealed, 
And ages ere the Mantuan swan was heard : 
To carry nature lerigths unknown before, 
To give a Milton birth, ask'd ages more. 



ELISION OF LETTERS. 20l 

i. Though but indirectly connected with punctuation, it may be 
remarked, that some of the past participles, having the termination 
ed, are in verse frequently written or printed with a t, as in the 
words blest, drest, dreamt; and this mode of spelling, though not 
analogical, is by no means unpleasant to the eye. In prose, how- 
ever, when participles having both terminations occur, it is better 
to adopt that which is more usual; being, to speak generally, the 
regular form, ed. 

ORAL EXERCISES. 

State the reason given in the Rule for inserting an apostrophe in the words 
tfius marked, and read them both in the elided and the full form : — 

'Mid such a heavenly scene as this, death is an empty name. 

Thou'lt yet survive the storm, and bloom in paradise. 

Me thought that I lay naked and faint 'neath a tropic sky. 

If I'd a throne, I'd freely share it with thee. 

That lesson in my memory I'll treasure up with care. 

I might have lived, and 'joyed immortal bliss. 

'Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks, and sights unholy. 

Let me thy voice betimes i'the morning hear. 

Night stretches forth her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 

The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone. 

E'en with the tender tear which nature sheds o'er those we love. 

Thou'rt neither fair nor strong nor wise nor rich nor young. 

You're overwatched, my lord: he down and rest. 

Here 's a marvellous convenient place for our rehearsal. 

Give a single lightning glance, and he'll dwindle to a calf. 

One, 'midst the forests of the West, by a dark stream is laid. 

Whene'er I wander in the grove, and gaze upon the lake. 

Do not ask who'll go with you: go ahead. 

Tie up the knocker ; say I'm sick, — I'm dead. 

Go to, I'll no more oft: it hath made me mad. 

If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth. 

Or in some hollowed seat, 'gainst which the big waves beat. 

Faint 's the cold work till thou inspire the whole. 

A mingled air: 'twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild. 

That errand-bound 'prentice was passing in haste. 

You've pulled my bell as if you'd jerk it off the wire. 

Of herself survey she takes, but 'tween men no difference makes. 

For,'twixt the hours of twelve and one, methought I heard him shriek 



202 THE APOSTROPHE. 

Show how the insertion or the omission of apostrophes in certain words, occurring 
in these portions of verse, is borne out by the preceding Remarks .• — 

Strike — till the last armed foe expires ! 

Here Edwin and his Emma oft would stray, 
To enjoy the coolness of the evening breeze. 

The toiling ploughman drives his thirsty teams 
To taste the slippery streams. 

Though darkness o'er a slumbering world 

Her sable mantle throw, 
Returning splendors are unfurled, 

And all is bright below. 

Unthinking, idle, wild, and young, 
I laughed and talked, and danced and sung ; 
And, proud of health, of freedom vain, 
Dreamt not of sorrow, care, or pain. 

Serenity broods o'er my mind ; 

For I daily pray to Heaven, 
That, when the hour of death arrives, 

My sins may be forgiven. 

But come, thou goddess fair and free, 
In heaven ycleped Euphrosyne, 
And by men heart-easing Mirth ; 
Whom lovely Venus, at a birth, 
With two sister Graces more, 
To ivy-crowned Bacchus bore. 

Oh ! when my friend and I 
In some thick wood have wandered heedless on, 
Hid from the vulgar eye, and sat us down 
Upon the sloping cowslip-covered bank, 
Where the pure, limpid stream has slid along 
In grateful errors through the underwood, 
Sweet murmuring, methought the shrih-tonguei thrush 
Mended his song of love ; the sooty blackbird 
Mellowed his pipe, and softened every note ; 
The eglantine smelled sweeter, and the rose 
Assumed a dye more deep ; whilst every flower 
Vied with its fellow-plant in luxury 
Of dress. Oh ! then, the longest summer's day 
Seemed too, too much in haste ; still the full heart 
Had not imparted half: 'twas happiness 
Too exquisite to last. Of joys departed, 
Not to return, how painful the remembrance ! 









ELISION OF LETTERS. 203 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert the apostrophe wherever necessary ; and mark a grave accent on the 
vowel in ED in verse, when pronounced as an additional syllable: — 

As Yorkshire Humphrey, tother day, 
Oer LodcIod Bridge was stumping. 

That forked flash, that pealing crash, 
Seemed from the wave to sweep her. 

At once they sprang 
With haste aloft, and, peering bright, 
Descried afar the blessed sight. 

For who but He that arched the skies 
Could rear the daisy's purple bud, 
Mould its green cup, its wiry stem, 
Its fringed border nicely spin, 
And cut the gold-embossed gem, 
That, set in silver, gleams within? 

Oer Idalia's velvet green the rosy-crowned Loves are seen. 

Now, brothers, bending oer the accursed loom, 
Stamp we our vengeance deep, and ratify his doom. 

From seventeen years till now, almost fourscore, 
Here lived I, but now live here no more. 

Then lighted from his gorgeous throne ; for now 
Twixt host and host but narrow space was left. 

Approach, and read (for thou canst read) the lay 
Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn. 

Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulphurous bolt, 
Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak, 
Than the soft myrtle. 

A bearded man, 
Armed to the teeth art thou : one mailed hand 
Grasps the broad shield, and one the sword. 

Blest be the day I scaped the wrangling crew 
From Pyrrho's maze and Epicurus' sty, 
And held high converse with the godlike few, 
Who, to the enraptured heart and ear and eye, 
Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody. 

It gazes on those glazed eyes, it hearkens for a breath ; 

It does not know that kindness dies, and love departs from death. 



204 THE APOSTROPHE. 

RULE II. 
The Genitive or Possessive Case. 

The apostrophe is used to distinguish the possessive 
case of nouns ; which is usually formed in the singular 
number by adding to the nominative an s, with an 
aposti-ophe before it, and in the plural by simply an- 
nexing this mark. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. What majesty attends Night's lovely queen! 

2. The Ages' voice speaks everlasting truth. 

REMARKS. 

a. The apostrophe is sometimes used in the singular number 
without the additional s, when the nominative ends in s, ss, ce, or x ; 
as, "Moses' rod," "for righteousness" 1 sake," "for conscience" 1 sake," 
" the administratrix' sale." This mode of punctuation holds good 
chiefly in proper names having a foreign termination, and in such 
common nouns as are seldom used in the plural, — an exception to 
the rule of forming the possessive singular, which is founded on the 
propriety of modifying the disagreeable nature of the hissing sound. 

o. Recourse, however, should not be had to the principle laid 
down in the preceding remark, when its adoption would cause ambi- 
guity, or when the addition of the s is not offensive to a refined ear. 
For instance, the Italic words in the phrases, " Burns 1 s Poems," 
"James's book," " Thomas's cloak," " the fox's tail," though they 
contain the hissing sound, are not particularly unpleasant, and are far 
more analogical and significant than the abbreviated forms, " Burns' 
Poems," "James' book," " Thomas' cloak," " the fox' tail." 

c. We have no doubt that the distinctions here suggested are 
important, and accord with the genius of the English language ; but 
in poetry none but the author himself should change the form of 
the possessive, whether written with or without the annexed s, as, 
unless the whole line were recast, such an alteration would probably 
mar the harmony of the verse. Even in prose, a printer should not 
take the liberty of changing the form of a possessive, without the 
consent of the author; this matter being yet a subject on which 
there is a difference of opinion among literary men. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 



205 



d. To form the possessive case plural, the apostrophe, with an 
s after it, is added to the nominative plural, when it does not end 
in that letter; as, "Men's passions; women's tenderness; children's 
joys." 

e. The possessive case of pronouns is formed without an apos- 
trophe; as, — 



HGdLAB. 


PLUBAL. 


SINGULAB. 


PLUBAL. 


Mine. 


Ours. 


Hers. 


Theirs. 


Tours. 


Yours. 


Its. 


Theirs. 


His. 


Theirs. 


Whose. 


Whose. 



Some grammarians would use the apostrophe before the s in ours, 
yours, hers, its, theirs. But the impropriety of this is evident from 
the mode in which the other pronouns in the possessive case are 
always written; namely, mine, his, and whose; which exhibit the 
case without the mark in question. 



ORAL EXERCISES. 

State the reason for the insertion and position of the apostrophe in these 
sentences : — 

A man's manners not unfrequently indicate his morals. 

On eagle's wings he seemed to soar. — Our enemies' resistance. 

The shepherd-swain on Scotia's mountains fed his little flock. 

And the Persians' gems and gold were the Grecians' funeral pyre. 

We will not shrink from life's severest due. — Woman's rights. 

Few columns rose to mark her patriots' last repose. 

The sun is the poet's, the invalid's, and the hypochondriac's friend. 

The ladies' gloves and shawls were exceedingly handsome. 

Philippa was the name of Edward the Third's queen. 

majestic Night, Nature's great ancestor, Day's elder born! 

He must strike the second heat upon the Muses' anvil. 

Mother's wag, pretty boy, father's sorrow, father's joy. 

Spirit of Good ! on this week's verge I stand. 

Bid them in duty's sphere as meekly move. 

Why is that sleeper laid to rest in manhood's pride? 

Who loves not spring's voluptuous hours, or summer's splendid reign ? 

Is sparkling wit the world's exclusive right? 

The Turk awoke : he woke to hear his sentry's shriek. 

The people's shouts were long and loud. — Thy mercies' monument. 

A Mend should bear a friend's infirmities. — The ox's hide. 



206 THE APOSTROPHE. 

Show how the Rule or the Remarks (pp. 204-5) are applicable to the possessive 
case in the following phrases and sentences : — 

Adam's book, not Adams's : the book did not belong to Adams. 

John Quincy Adams's death was no common bereavement. 

Sir Humphrey Davy's safety-lamp. — Davis's Straits. 

Josephus's " History of the Jews " is a very interesting work. 

Andrew's hat, not Andrews's. — Andrews's " Latin Reader." 

For quietness' sake, the man would not enter into any dispute. 

Col. Matthews's delivery. — Matthew's Gospel, not Matthews's. 

The witness's testimony agreed with the facts of the case. 

Let Temperance' smile the cup of gladness cheer. 

Nor roamed Parnassus' heights nor Pindus' hallowed shade. 

There is no impropriety in speaking of the cockatrice's den. 

I oft have sat on Thames' sweet bank to hear my friend. 

Like the silver crimson shroud, that Phoebus' smiling looks doth grace. 

Faustus' offence [the offence of Faustus] can never be pardoned. 

After two years, Porcius Festus came into Felix's room. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Agreeably to the Rule and the Remarks, insert apostrophes in, or annex them 
to, the nouns in the possessive case which occur in the following sentences ; 
but let the pronouns remain unmarked .- — 

The traveller went to lodge, not in Mr. Jacobs house, but in Mr. 
Jacobss. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

I am going to the booksellers [sing.] to purchase Popes Homer 
and Dry dens Virgil. (Rule.) 

Procrustes bed. — Hortensius influence. — Achilles shield. — Po- 
cahontas father. — Sophocles Greek Grammar. (Remark a.) 

The precepts of wisdom form the good mans interest and happi- 
ness. (Rule.) 

Robert Burnss prose as well as poetical writings are astonishing 
productions. (Remark b.) 

Fames proud temple shines afar. — From mens experience do 
thou learn wisdom. (Rule, and Remark d.) 

They applauded that conduct of his, but condemned hers and 
yours. The reason of its being done I cannot tell. (Remark e.) 

He had the surgeons [sing.], the physicians [sing.], and the 
apothecarys advice. (Rule.) 

The tendency of Dickenss genius, both in delineating the actual 
and the natural, is to personify, to individualize. (Remark &.) 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 207 

Goethes "Wilhelm Meister" was the rich result of ten years 
labor. (Rule.) 

John Parrys children played with David Parriss. — Williams wig 
was purchased at Mr. Williamss shop. (Rule, and Remark b.) 

I would rather have arrived at one profound conclusion of the 
sages meditation in his dim study, than to win that gaze of the mul- 
titude. (Rule.) 

Should you have occasion to refer, in writing or in print, to 
Burns sermons, meaning the sermons of Burn, you must be careful 
to put the apostrophe in its right place. (Rule, and comp. Rem. b.) 

A drunkard once reeled up to him with the remark, " Mr. White- 
field, I am one of your converts." — "I think it very likely," was 
the reply; " for I am sure you are none of Gods." (Rule.) 

I was surprised to see so many young idle sparks listening 
quietly and attentively to Dr. David Sparkss lecture on Drusius, 
Grotius, and Michaelis theological works. (Remarks b, a.) 

And still the Greek rushed on, beneath the fiery fold, 

Till, like a rising sun, shone Xerxes tent of gold. (Remark a.) 

Education does not commence with the alphabet: it begins with 
a mothers look; with a fathers nod of approbation, or a sign of 
reproof; with a sisters gentle pressure of the hand, or a brothers 
noble act of forbearance ; with handfuls of flowers in green dells, on 
hills and daisy meadows ; with birds nests admired, but not touched ; 
with humming bees and glass hives ; with pleasant walks in shady 
lanes ; with thoughts directed, in sweet and kindly tones and words, 
to nature, to beauty, to acts of benevolence, to deeds of virtue, to 
the sense of all good, and to God himself. (Rule.) 

Behold Affections garden, whose sweet flowers — 

A Mending of all odors, forms, and hues — 

Were nursed by Fancy and the gentle Muse 

In heaven-born Poesys delightful bowers. 

Ye who appreciate the poets powers, 

And love the bright creations of his mind, 

Come, linger here awhile, and ye shall find 

A noble solace in your milder hours : 

Here Byrons genius, like an eagle, towers 

In dread sublimity ; while Rogers lute, 

Moores native harp, and Campbells classic flute. 

Mingle in harmony, as beams with showers. 

Can their high strains of inspiration roll, 

Nor soothe the heart, nor elevate the soul? (Rule.) 



208 



Sect. II. — THE HYPHEN. 



The Hyphen [ - ] is sometimes employed to join 
the constituent parts of compound and derivative words. 
It is also used to divide words into syllables, for the 
purpose either of exhibiting the pronunciation, or of 
showing the simple portions into which words of more 
than one syllable may be resolved. 

REMARKS. 

a. From this explanation, it will be seen that the hyphen is used 
for two very different purposes, — to join and to separate. As a 
mark of junction, it is inserted between the simple words of which 
certain compounds are formed; and, in peculiar circumstances, be- 
tween a preposition, or a portion of a word, and the word to which 
it is prefixed; as, " the inhuman and fiendish slave-trade ; " " a man 
of pre-eminence;'''' "the Neo-Plaionic philosophers." As a mark 
of separation, it is employed by lexicographers and by writers or 
printers to analyze words, and to divide them into syllables ; by the 
former to show as accurately as possible the pronunciation, and by 
the latter to disunite portions of words that cannot be brought into 
a line of manuscript or of letterpress. 

b. The distinction between a compound and a derivative word is, 
that the former consists of two or more simple words which are 
separately and commonly used in English; whereas the latter is 
made up of simple words, or portions of words, which are not each 
separately current in the language; as, pseudo-apostle. — See page 23, 
Def. XII. 

c. But the simple words which make up compounds and deriva- 
tives are not always united by the hyphen ; a few only of the latter 
being thus distinguished, and a very considerable number of the 
former, particularly those which form compound nouns, having 
coalesced so closely in pronunciation as to require them to be 



COMPOUND WORDS. 



209 



presented to the eye as one word. It is, therefore, a matter of 
importance to ascertain when it will be proper to join the parts 
of compounds with the hyphen, and when to unite them without 
this connecting mark. The mode of using the hyphen in syllabica- 
tion is also attended with difficulties, which may, in a great measure, 
be obviated by an appeal to certain principles. 



RULE I. 
Compound Words* 

§ I. When each of the words of which a compound 
is formed retains its original accent, they should be 
united by a hyphen. 

§ II. But, when the compound word has only one 
accent, its parts are consolidated ; being written or 
printed without the hyphen. 



EXAMPLES. 



§1. 

1. The all'-wise' God. 

2. In'cense-breath'ingmorn. 



§ IT. 

1. A fortunate book'seller. 

2. A mean nobleman. 



REMARKS. 

a. The words "all-wise" and "incense-breathing," "bookseller" 
and "nobleman," are compounds, because they severally represent, 
not two separate ideas, but one compound idea. The primitives which 
enter into the composition of " all'-wise'" and " in / cense-breath / ing " 
retain the same accents as they had before these compounds were 
formed; but, as they could not be readily distinguished if written or 
printed closely together, the only mode of showing that they are 
compound, is by inserting a hyphen between them. On the other 
hand, the simple words forming the compounds "bookseller" and 
" nobleman " do not both retain the accents which are heard in the 
phrases, " a seller of books," " a man who is noble" but so perfectly 
coalesce in pronunciation as to form one unbroken, continuous word, 
14 



210 THE HYPHEN. 

with a single accent, — book 1 'seller, no'bleman ; the hyphen, therefore, 
being unnecessary. 

b. In the preceding paragraph, it was said that a compound word 
represents a compound idea, and not two ideas. This definition, Dr. 
Latham, from whom we borrowed it, illustrates (in his work on the 
"English Language," page 359) by the expression, "a sharp-edged 
instrument," which means an instrument with sharp edges; whereas 
a sharp edged instrument denotes an instrument that is sharp and 
has edges. It may not be practicable to apply the remark in each 
and all cases ; but it is certain that compounds have often a signi- 
fication very different from that which the same Avords convey when 
written apart, and that this difference should be indicated by the 
mode of exhibiting them. Thus, blackbird is properly written as one 
word, because it represents a particular species of birds ; whereas a 
black bird means any bird that is black. A glass-house is a house in 
which glass is made, while a glass house is a house made of glass. 
The goodman of a house may, for aught we know, be a very bad 
man ; and a good man may, for certain reasons, have no claim what- 
ever to the civility implied in the use of the compound: yet both 
terms, if correctly written, will be understood. Forget me not literally 
expresses an earnest desire, on the part of a speaker or a writer, 
that he should be remembered; but, in a metaphorical sense, the 
same words, when combined, — forget-me-not, — denote a certain 
flower, emblematic of friendship or fidelity. 

c. All compounds, therefore, should be so written as will best 
exhibit their true pronunciation, and the ideas intended to be ex- 
pressed, — objects which, we have seen, may to some extent be 
effected either by consolidating the simples, or by uniting them with 
a hyphen. And here the rule already laid down might naturally be 
expected to come to our aid, as being founded on the characteristics 
and tendencies of the English language itself. But, notwithstanding 
the obvious worth and utility of the rule, the practice of some of 
our best authors and printers, as to the mode of exhibiting many 
of the compounds in use, is so conflicting, and the inconsistencies of 
perhaps all our lexicographers are so numerous, not to speak of their 
defect in distinguishing the compounds which have only one accent 
from those which have two, that it would be regarded as pedantry 
or presumption for a punctuator to attempt subjecting each of the 
compound words to the operation of the rule; and, on the other 
hand, it would be impracticable for him, without filling a volume, to 
give perfect lists of all the compounds, with the fluctuating and 



COMPOUND WORDS. 211 

different, modes in which they are presented in dictionaries and other 
books. It will therefore be our aim merely to specify some of the 
exceptions to the nile, and to throw out a few suggestions applicable 
to certain classes of compounds; recommending that, in all cases 
where the general and best usage as to the insertion or the omission 
of the hyphen cannot readily be learned, recourse be had, when the 
accentuation is previously known, to the rule itself. 

EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE. 

d. According to the first section of the rule, those simples in a 
compound word which retain their original accent should be United 
by a hyphen. The exceptions to this principle are not very nume- 
rous, and consist chiefly — 1. Of a few compounds in common use, 
such as ei/erlast'ing, not 'withstand 'ing, which are universally written, 
at the present day, each as one unbroken word : 2. Of such as termi- 
nate in monger ; as, bor'oughmong'er, i'ronmong'er : 3. Of almost all 
those beginning with the prepositions over, under ; as, <f verbal' ance, 
understanding. 

e. According to the second section of the rule, when only one of 
the simple words retains its original accent in a compound, they 
are consolidated, being written without a hyphen. But to this 
principle there is a considerable number of exceptions, which may, 
however, be mostly reduced to the following classes : — 

1. Those compounds in which the first of the primitive words 
ends, and the second begins, with the same letter ; as, book' -keeping, 
ear'-ring, glovf-worm, night'-time, pooa^-rate, rear'-rank, rough' -hewn. 
The word oft'times, however, is usually written without the hyphen. 

2. Those compounds in which the first of two primitives ends, 
and the second begins, with a vowel; as, fire' -arms, pine' -apple, 
peace' -offering. 

3. Those whose meaning would be obscured, or whose pronuncia- 
tion would be less easily known, by the consolidation of the simples ; 
as, ass'-head, pot'-herb, soap'-house, Jirst'-rate. The reason for the 
division of these and similar primitives is, that the s, t, and p are 
pronounced separately from the h following them, and the st from 
the r; whereas, when in their usual state of combination, sh, th, ph, 
and sir are each pronounced with one impulse of the voice. 

4. All compounds ending with the word tree; as, beech' -tree 
date' -tree, pear' -tree, ap'ple-tree : also those terminating with book 
as, datf-book, red'-book, shop'-book. 



212 THE HYPHEN. 

5. Nouns formed of a verb and an adverb or preposition ; as, a 
breaW-down, a lookf-out, a start' -up : or of a present participle and a 
noun ; as, dwell' ing-place, hum'ming-bird, print' 'ing-pr ess, spin'ning-mill, 
writ'ing-school. 

6. Adjectives, or epithets, which are formed in a great variety of 
ways; as, air' -built, heart' -broken; first' -born, one' -legged, two' -leaved; 
ill' -bred, above' -said, down' -trodden ; church' -going, brain' -racking ; 
good' -looking, hard' -working ; grown' -up, unlooked'-for, unheard' -of. 

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES AND COMPOUND NOUNS. 

/. An immense majority of the compound adjectives in the 
English language, whether with one or two accents, have their 
primitives united by a hyphen. A few, however, of very common 
occurrence, and having only one accent, are consolidated; namely, 
those which are the same as the one-accented compound nouns from 
which they have been taken; as, high'land: those formed from them 
either by adding ed or ing, or by changing er into these letters ; as, 
cob'webbed (from cob'web), shoe'making (from shoe'maker) : and those 
terminating with the words faced, coming, holding, and like; as, 
barefaced, forth' coming, slave'holding, child'like (the word like, how- 
ever, being preceded by a hyphen, when joined to a proper name, or 
to a word ending in I; as, Eve' -like, owl' -like). To which may be 
added the words anoth'er, free'born, in'born, out'door. 

g. Board, house, room, side, stone, time, yard, are usually consoli- 
dated with a preceding noun if of one syllable, and are united by a 
hyphen to it if consisting of more than one ; as, cupboard, shovel-board; 
schooUwuse, senate-house; bedroom, composition-room; roadside, moun- 
tain-side ; tombstone, eagle-stone ; daytime, dinner-time ; graveyard, 
timber-yard. But the word town-house is commonly hyphened; so, 
also, town-hall, seed-hall, &c. 

h. The compound nouns ending in the word woman are irregular 
in their form; as, goodwoman, needlewoman, tirewoman; market-woman, 
oyster-woman. If, however, these last two compounds have severally 
two accents, and the three preceding have each only one, they will 
be subject to the main rule, as given on page 209. 

i. Compound nouns are sometimes formed by uniting a present 
participle and an adverb or preposition; as, the coming -tog ether, the 
carrying-away, the sending-off, the pulling-down, the blotting-out. A 
hyphen is inserted between the parts of ail such compounds, which 
are readily known by their taking an article before them, as in the 
examples here given. 



COMPOUND WORDS. 213 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS IN APPOSITION. 

J. Nouns in apposition are written and printed apart; as, Sister 
Anne, Brother Marshall, Father Taylor, Professor Bush, the tyrant 
Nero, the poet Milton, that fellow Turpin, the lily Asphodel. But, 
when put before a common noun, whether singular or plural, the 
words sister, brother, fellow, severally form part of a compound; as, 
the sister-city, my brother -ministers, our fellow-men ; and, in all such 
cases, the hyphen should be used. Fatherhood, brotherhood, and 
sisterhood are not regarded as exceptions; for, according to the 
distinction made between compounds and derivatives, these terms 
will be subject to Rule II., p. 219; being each employed as one word, 
and without a hyphen, because the termination hood is not separately 
found, with the sense here used, in the English language. 

k. The pronouns he, she, are commonly united by a hyphen 
to the nouns which they precede and qualify ; as, he-calf she-asses. 
The words male and female, when adjectives, are better put sepa- 
rately from the nouns which they qualify ; as, a male descendant. 

NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY. 

I. The first of two nouns, when it denotes the material or sub- 
stance of which a thing is made, should stand apart from the noun 
which it qualifies ; as, brass pan, brick floor, glass pitcher, gold ring, 
granite building, mud cabin, oak chest, silver spoon, stone wall, tin basin. 
But, when the nouns so coalesce in pronunciation that one of them 
has lost its original accent, they should be written or printed as one 
word ; as, rail' road, rain' drop, snou/ball. 

to. Two nouns may also be written as distinct words, when the 
former is put instead of an adjective; as, an angel woman (for an 
angelic woman), an anniversary feast (for an annual feast), business 
connections (for mercantile or trading connections), a country trip (for 
a rural trip), church government (for ecclesiastical government), giant 
labor (for gigantic labor), gospel truth (for evangelical truth), home life 
(for domestic life), mountain billows (for huge billows), the north wind (for 
the northern wind), the west part (for the western part). 

n. The same i-emark is applicable to nouns of more than one 
syllable, when they are necessarily used, for want of suitable adjec- 
tives, to express the nature, quality, or some modification of the 
nouns before which they are placed ; as, benefit societies, evening 
amusements, family party, leisure hours, party strife, prose writings, 
summer sky, Sunday training, village maid. 



214 THE HYPHEN. 

o. So, also, compound nouns, when used adjectively, are separated 
from the nouns which they precede or qualify; as, pindrop silence, 
railway travel, a whalebone rod, the noonday sun ; twenty-horse power, 
a custom-house officer, the council-room table. But when the compound 
noun, and the simple noun which it precedes, have altogether but 
one accent, they should appear as one word; as, highwayman, 
domes' day-book. 

p. Two words, the last of which is a noun, though in their usual 
construction separate, are hyphened when put before a noun which 
they qualify, but are set apart from the latter ; as, high-water mark, 
short-metre stanzas, Sunday-school system, wild-beast skins, a bird's-eye 
view, a Jirst-class car, a manual-labor business, an up-hill game, the 
one-hour rule. 

q. Proper names, when used as adjectives, should be separated 
from the words which they qualify or characterize; as, Angola 
sheep, April fool, Argand lamp, Barbary horse, Bristol stone, California 
gold, Epsom salts, French chalk, Jamaica pepper, Jerusalem artichoke, 
Madeira wine, Newfoundland dog. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

r. Two numerals expressing a compound number, if in their 
ordinary construction, are united by a hyphen ; as, twenty-one, 
ninety-nine: but if inverted, and a conjunction is placed between 
them, so as to constitute a phrase, they are written or printed apart; 
as, three and thirty. The word fold is closely annexed to the cardi- 
nals when they have only one syllable, but united to them by a 
hyphen when they have more than one; as, twofold, twelvefola; 
thirty-fold, seventy-six-fold, two hundred-fold. The word penny is sub- 
ject to the same principle; as, threepenny, fifteen-penny. Halfpenny 
is an unhyphened compound; but one penny, two words. Pence, 
being a noun, is entirely separated from the numerals which precede 
it, when they consist of more than one syllable ; as, fifteen pence : 
but, like the words fold and penny, it is joined without the hyphen, 
when they are monosyllabic ; as, fourpence, tenpence. 

s. The simple words in such terms as one-half two-thirds, five 
sixteenths, — though, strictly speaking, not compounds, — are usually 
joined together by the hyphen. 

t. A half-dollar, a quarter-barrel, and all such compounds, are 
written with a hyphen between the simple words; but, when an 
article or a preposition intervenes, the parts of the phrase should be 
separated ; as, half a pint, quarter of a pound. 



COMPOUND WORDS. 215 



ADJECTIVES CONSOLIDATED WITH NOUNS. 

«. Adjectives are not unfrequently consolidated with the nouns 
which they precede, when the compound thus formed admits of 
but one accent; as, blackboard, bluebottle, foreground, freemason, 
glassworks, goldsmith, hardhead, highlands, hotspur, longboat, lowlands, 
madhouse, mainmast, redbreast, roundhead, safeguard, stronghold, 
sweetbread, twelvemonth, wildfire. 

v. Freewill — having, when used adjectively, the accent on the 
first syllable; as, afree'will offering — should be written as one word; 
but, when employed in its proper character as a compound noun, 
with the accent on the last syllable, the hyphen may be inserted 
between its parts ; as, the doctrine of free-will' '. 

w. Anybody, everybody, somebody, nobody, indicating persons, are, 
in this form, distinguished from the phrases any body, every body, no 
body, some body, which, as separate words, and with a pronunciation 
different from that of the first class, refer to inorganic substances. 
Sometliing and nothing have also coalesced in pronunciation and 
form; but every thing and any thing (like the words any one and every 
one) may follow the analogy of the language, by which adjectives 
are separated from the nouns which they qualify. 

x. When the noun which is qualified by an adjective retains its 
original accent, the two words should not appear as a compound, 
either with or without the hyphen. In the following and other 
phrases, therefore, which are sometimes written as compounds, the 
adjectives should stand apart: Animal magnetism, armed chair, attic 
story, blank verse, common sense, earthen ware, good nature, good will, 
ill humor, old age, old maid, redeeming love, the black art. 

y. Such abbreviated sentences as good-morning, good-night, good-by 
may have a hyphen between the parts of which they consist. 

NAMES OF PLACES. 

z. Names of cities and other places, when formed of common 
nouns, are consolidated; as, Barnstable, Bridgewater, Fairhaven, 
Newport, Southbridge. When the second of the primitives is in itself 
a proper name, it should be set apart from the first; as, North 
Britain, New York: though, in spite of analogy, there are a few 
exceptions; as, Easthampton and Southampton (the h, in the latter 
word, being omitted), which usually appear as undivided words. 

2 a. But those parts of the names of places which, according to the 
usual construction, are disconnected, should be united by a hyphen 



216 THE HYPHEN. 

when they are employed as adjectives; as, the South-Boston foundry, 
the New-England people, the East-India Company. This remark is 
well illustrated by Mr. Goold Brown, in his work, " The Grammar 
of English Grammars," p. 159: "In modern compound names, the 
hyphen is now less frequently used than it was a few years ago. 
They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as adjectives ; 
and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it. Thus the 
phrase, the New London Bridge, can be understood only of a new 
bridge in London ; and, if we intend by it a bridge in New London, 
we must say, the New-London Bridge. So the New York Directory is 
not properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for 
York." 

2 b. So, also, the word street, when forming part of a compound 
epithet, is connected by a hyphen with the word preceding it; as, 
a Washington-street omnibus : but, when otherwise used, it is better 
written or printed separately; as, Washington Street, Boston. The 
same rule will hold good in respect to such words as place, square, 
court, &c. ; as, " Howard-place Church and Crown-court Chapel are. 
situated not far from Pemberton Square, New Brixton." 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

2 c. When the possessive case, and the word which governs it, 
do not literally convey the idea of property, or have lost this signi 
fication, they are connected by means of a hyphen; as, Job's-tears, 
Solomon 1 s-seal, Jesuits' 1 -bark, beards-foot, goaV s-beard ; Jew's-harp; St. 
Mtus' s-dance, the king' s-evil. As compounds, these words do not 
severally denote the tears which the Arabian patriarch shed, a seal 
belonging to the wise Hebrew ruler, bark which is the property of 
Jesuits, the foot of a bear, the beard of a goat, the harp of a Jew, the 
dance of St. Vitus, the evil of the king. But, were the primitive 
words from which they are formed put separately, they would have 
these meanings. 

2 c?. When, however, institutions, churches, law-courts, places, 
rivers, &c, are called after distinguished men, the names put in 
the possessive case are separated from those of the objects which 
they characterize; as, St. Mary's College, St. Peter's Church, St. 
Paul's Churchyard, Queen's Bench, Van Diemen's Land, Merchants' 
Exchange, the St. John's River. The names of holydays, if similarly 
formed, may be written or printed in the same manner; as, New 
Year's Day, All Saints' Day. In all such phrases, the hyphen is not 
required, because they have severally but one signification. 



COMPOUND WORDS. 217 

2 e. If the possessive case, and the noun governing it, are used in 
the literal sense of the woi'ds, and have only one accent, they should 
be written or printed as a compound, without either apostrophe or 
hyphen ; as, beeswax, craftsmaster, doomsday, hogslard, kinswoman, 
lambswool (but, if meaning ale mixed with sugar, &c, lamb" 1 s-wool, 
according to Bemark 2 c), newspaper, ratsbane, townsman, tradesman. 

COMPOUND PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS. 

2/. Compound pronouns have always their parts consolidated; 
as, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ownself, ownselves ; 
whoever, whomsoever, whatever, whatsoever : One's self is probably a 
phrase, and not, as is sometimes written, a compound, — oneself or 
one's-self I myself is also a phrase, or two words in apposition. 

2 g. Compound adverbs are, generally speaking, consolidated; as, 
altogether, awhile, beforehand, evermore, henceforward, indeed, instead, 
everywhere, nowhere, nevertheless, somehow, nowise, anywise, likewise, 
wherewithal, hereupon, whithersoever. But to-day, to-night, to-mom'ow, 
are almost universally printed with a hyphen. So also now-a-days ; 
and perhaps such words as inside-out, upside-down. There is a ten- 
dency on the part of American printers to spell the words for ever 
as one continuous compound; but they everywhere occur in the 
common version of the Bible as a phrase ; and, the eye being thus 
accustomed to their separation, it would probably be better to retain 
this form. By and by are obviously three words, though sometimes 
written as a compound. 

COMPOUND AND OTHER PHRASES. 

2 h. All phrases which are thrown out of their usual order, and, 
by a strange collocation, put before the nouns which they are made 
to qualify, should have a hj'phen between their parts; as, some 
out-of-the-world place, a matter-of-fact-looking town, long-looked-for 
news, out-of-door business, raw-head-and-bloody-bones stories, the alioays- 
wind-obeying deep, the ever-to-be-honored Chaucer, the half-burnt-through 
bottom of the saucepan, well-laid-out parks. 

2 i. When epithets are formed of an adverb ending in ly and of a 
participle, the two words are usually separated without the hyphen ; 
as, a newly built house, a beautifully formed pen. The reason probably 
is, that the structure of such adverbs does not easily admit of their 
junction with the words modified. 

2j. When a noun is placed before an adverb or preposition and 
a participle, these do not make a compound epithet, and should 



218 THE HYPHEN. 

therefore be written or printed as two words; as, a catalogue well 
arranged, love ill requited, the place before mentioned. 

2 k. Words in phrases should be written and printed separately; 
as, above all, after all, at second hand, balm of Gilead, cheek by jowl, in 
any wise (but, without the preposition, and as an adverb, anywise), 
might and main, rank and file, tit for tat, tooth and nail. Of such 
phrases, however, as father-in-law, attorney-at-law, commander-in 
chief the parts are usually connected by a hyphen. 

2 I. When a compound phrase is formed of two or more words 
which are severally associated in sense with one term, the primitives 
should stand apart; as, cannon and musket balls. Were a hyphen 
inserted between " musket" and " balls," the meaning of the phrase 
would not be cannon-balls and musket-balls, but cannon, or large 
guns, and also balls for the musket. The following are additional 
examples: Household and needle work ; land and river travel ; a chief 
or master builder ; the watch and clock repairing business ; a son and 
daughter in law ; second, third, or fourth rate effects. Some would 
insert a hyphen between the parts of the last compound, and attach 
it to the disjointed words ; as, iron-, cotton-, silk-, print-, and dye-works 
but, though more correct, this is a German mode of exhibiting such 
compounds, with which the English eye is not familiar. All diffi- 
culty would be obviated, were the phrases changed into language 
more grammatical. 

2 m. All foreign phrases should be written and printed as they 
are found in the language from which they are taken ; as, " John 
Sharp, Secretary pro tempore.'''' — " It was a sine qua non, an indis- 
pensable condition, that an agreement should be entered into." — 
" William said in Latin, Vade mecum, Go with me." But such 
phrases, if they are used before nouns, or have been incorporated 
into the English language, should follow the common analogy; as, 
" John was elected pro-tempore Secretary." — " This was a sine-qua- 
non business." — " That little book is an excellent vade-mecum" 



For further information on this difficult subject, the reader is referred to 
Mr. Goold Brown's invaluable work, before quoted ; from which, while ven- 
turing in some respects to differ in opinion, we have derived not a little 
assistance as to the nature of compounds, and the forms in which they should 
be presented. But the subject is not exhausted; and he who, with the 
scholarship and industry of that gentleman, will devote himself to the classi- 
fication of all the compounds in the language, would perform a good service 
to a branch of literature which has been sadly neglected. 



DERIVATIVE WORDS. 219 

RULE II. 
Prefixes in Derivative Words. 

§ I. If a prefix ends with a vowel, and the word 
with which it is combined begins with a consonant ; or 
if the former ends with a consonant, and the latter 
begins with a vowel or a consonant, — the compound 
thus formed should appear as one unbroken word. 

§ II. If, however, the prefix ends, and the word to 
which it is united begins, with a vowel, — both vowels 
being separately pronounced, — they should be con- 
nected with a hyphen. 

EXAMPLES. 



§1. 

1. Predetermine, resell, antedate. 

2. Counteraction, multangular. 

3 Supernatural, contemporaneous. 



§ n. 

1. Pre-occupy, re-echo, ante-act. 

2. Contra-indication, retro-enter 

3. Supra-orbital, co-eternal. 



REMAKES. 

a. When the prefix ends with a vowel, and is followed by a -word 
beginning also with a vowel, many writers and printers place a diae- 
resis over the latter, instead of a hyphen between them; as, coeval. 
But this mode of exhibiting derivatives does not seem to accord 
with the genius of the English language, which, in ordinary compo- 
sition, dispenses with accentual marks. It would, therefore, probably 
be better to reserve the use of the diaeresis for words containing two 
vowels separately pronounced, but not capable of being divided, 
except for the purpose of syllabication and at the end of a line, by 
the hyphen ; as in Beelzebub, and in borrowed foreign words. 

b. The adverbs afore and fore, having now become almost obso 
lete as separate words, are regarded as mere prefixes : which should, 
therefore, without regard to accent, be subject to the present rule; 
as, aforegoing, foredetermined, fore-ordained. — See p. 208, Rem. b. 

c. As an exception to the first section of the rule, it is worthy 
of remark, that a derivative which might be mistaken for a word 
with the same letters, but a different meaning, should be distin- 



220 THE HYPHEN. 

guished from it by the insertion of a hyphen between its parts. 
Thus, re-creation, denoting a new creation, is obviously a more 
appropriate form of this word than recreation, which, besides being 
differently pronounced, signifies refreshment, or relaxation after toil. 
Thus, also, a difference exists in meaning and pronunciation between 
re-collect and recollect; re-form, re-formation, and reform, reformation; 
which it is necessary to exhibit in corresponding modes. With the 
exception of such words, the manner of writing derivatives having 
the prefix re is governed by the rule. 

d. Terms or epithets with prefixes of unusual occurrence, par- 
ticularly if the compounds thus formed have two accents, should 
be excepted from the operation of the first branch of the rule ; as, 
astro-theology, concavo-convex, deutero-canonical, electro-magnetism. 

e. The prefixes of proper names, or words used as such, substan 
tively or adjectively, follow both sections of the rule; as, Antenicene, 
Antichrist, &c, Antitrinitarian, Pedobaptist, Cisalpine, Transatlantic ; 
Anti-American, Pre-Adamic. But the words Neo-Platonic, Anglo- 
Saxon, Scoto-Hibernian, and others of a similar kind, accord in their 
forms with those referred to in Remark d. 

f. Extra is sometimes used as an adjective, and separated from 
the noun which it qualifies ; as, extra pay, extra work. As a prefix 
in extraordinary, it is not followed by a hyphen, because its last 
letter (a), though coming before a vowel, is silent in pronunciation. 

g. The letter a, when by a colloquialism it represents one of the 
prepositions on, in, at, to, should be united, without a hyphen, to 
the following word, if consisting of only one syllable; as, aboard, 
abed, afield, apiece. 

h. Bi and tri are usually consolidated with the words, or parts of 
words, to which they are prefixed; as, biennial; triunity, triune. 

i. Vicegerency, vicegerent, viceroyal, and viceroyalty are, in accord- 
ance with the rule, written each as one word. The other words, of 
which vice is a prefix, are, by almost universal custom, hyphened ; 
as, vice-president, vice-chancellor, &c. 

j. Bi, ante, anti, counter, contra, super, supra, semi, demi, preier, 
and other common prefixes, are sometimes printed with a hyphen 
after them ; but there seem to be no just grounds for this division, 
except when two vowels would otherwise come together, or when a 
dissyllabic prefix ends with the same consonant with which the next 
portion of a long word begins ; as, anti-evangelical, counter-revolution. 
To make any exceptions besides these, and a few others such as 
those noticed above, would lead to inextricable confusion. 



COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. 221 

ORAL EXERCISES. 

Bhow how the Rules and the Remarks (pp. 209-20) apply to the insertion of 
hyphens in certain words, or to their omission in certain phrases, which 
occur in the following sentences : — 

Better be trampled in the dust than trample on a fellow-creature. 

Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 

We have no doubt that instinct is a Heaven-ordained law. 

What the nations look for is a loving and hfe-giving religion. 

Keen-eyed revenge is riding round your ranks. 

When the wind-god frowns in the murky skies. 

sailor-boy, sailor-boy ! peace to thy soul ! 

He spoke no warrior-word, he bade no trumpet blow. 

And soft-eyed cherub-forms around thee play. 

The most remarkable winds are those denominated the trade-winds. 

Many are the advantages of co-operation. 

Self-abasement paved the way to villain bonds and despot sway. 

Like ocean-weeds heaped on the surf-beaten shore. 

Imagination is the truth-seeing and the beauty-seeing power. 

Ben Jonson, the great dramatist, was co-eval with Shakspeare 



The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value the 
whole of the European and Asiatic mines. 

Man possesses the great privilege of co-operating with his bene- 
ficent Creator. 

Philosophy will rise again in the sky of her Franklin, and glory 
rekindle at the urn of her Washington. 

There is little of the intellectual or moral in that sort of independ 
ence which is the proverbial characteristic of our countrymen. 

Would that that noble people were re-instated in all their ancient 
privileges ! 

The instincts of multitudes feel afar the gathering earthquake, 
which is to swallow up caste, privileges, and unjust distinctions. 

Let your lately formed engagements be fulfilled with perfect good 
faith. 

The shrieks of agony and clang of arms re-echo to the fierce 
alarms her trump terrific blows. 

Illiterate and ill-bred persons are apt to be verbose, contradictory, 
and loud in conversation. 

There is a mother-heart in all children, as well as a child-heart 
in all mothers. 



222 THE HYPHEN. 

Nature cries aloud for freedom as our proper guide, our birthright, 
and our end. 

Thousands of state-projects, on the vastest scale, have been con- 
ceived, executed, and forgotten. 

Deep-hearted practical faithfulness is not separable long from 
true-thoughted practical faith. 

In the face of the young fop above mentioned was seen an imper- 
tinent smile of affectation. 

They are but sluggards in well-doing who know to do good only 
when they have a purse in their hand. 

If man could ascend to dwell at the fountainhead of truth, he 
would be re-absorbed in God. 

In moments of clear, calm thought, I feel more for the wrong-doer 
than for him who is wronged. 

Edward the Sixth was a boy-king and a puppet-prince, invested 
with supreme power, but acting without any volition of his own. 

The term " bridegroom," strange as it seems, is given to a newly 
married man. 

Education can hardly be too intellectual, unless by intellectual 
you mean parrot-knowledge, and other modes of mind-slaughter. 

The churchyard bears an added stone ; the fireside shows a vacant 
chair. 

Columbus was for years an all but heart-broken suitor to royal 
stocks and stones. 

Many who have worshipped within these walls are now in the 
higher house, in the church of the First-born. 

If any one affirms that the juxtaposition of a number of particles 
makes a hope, he affirms a proposition to which I can attach no 
idea. 

In shipwrecks we are furnished with some of the most remark- 
able examples of trust in God, of unconquerable energy, and of 
tender, self-sacrificing love. 

The fair-weather sailor may equip himself tolerably from the 
storehouse of Epicurus; but stronger tackle will be needed when 
the masts are bending and the cordage straining in the storm. 

A man of no feeling must necessarily be unhappy, since the 
texture of his heart affords him no superabundant sensibility for 
the sufferings of his fellow-creatures. 

You talk of the prosperity of your city. Do not point me to your 
thronged streets. Is it a low-minded, self-seeking, gold-worshipping, 
man-despising crowd which I see rushing through them ? 



COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. 223 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

In this exercise, let the compound and derivative words be written agreeably to 
the two preceding' Rules and the Remarks .• — 

Genius has no chartei*ed license to -wander away from the eternal 
land marks of morality. (Kule L, § n.) 

The selfish use rules as means of self indulgence, and the narrow 
minded over look the end in the means. (Rule L, §§ I. and n.) 

Every rail road, connecting distant regions, may be regarded as 
accomplishing a ministry of peace. (Rule I., § n.) 

Genius, in its highest function, cannot co exist with a corrupted 
moral sentiment. (Rule II., § n.) 

The new moon silvered the lofty pines, and the stars twinkled 
with rare brilliancy from their dark blue depths. (Rule I., § I.) 

He who has a good son in law has gained a son : he who has a 
bad one has lost a daughter. (Rule I., Remax-k 2 k.) 

What is religious instruction to the vain, the frivolous, the in 
different, the pre occupied and fore closed mind? (Rule II.) 

Is a woman ambitious to ply a black smith's hammer, when she 
can wield so cunningly the thin, flitting sword of the spirit? 
(Rule I., § n.) 

The distance of the earth from the sun is, in round numbers, one 
hundred millions of miles; which is, of course, the radius or semi 
diameter of its orbit. (Rule II., § i.) 

Perhaps the sermons which have cost a clergy man tho 'east 
effort may some times have the most effect on his hearers. (Rule L, 
§ ii.; and Remark 2 g.) 

The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of immense im 
portance ; but they pre suppose in the mind to which they are 
applied an active co operation. (Rule II., §§ i. and n.) 

As some instruments are tuned with a tuning fork, some dis- 
courses seem to have been pitched with a pitch fork. (Rule I., 
Remark e 5, and § n.) 

The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in vehement 
re action against the prevailing tendencies of an exceedingly cor- 
rupted civilization. (Rule II., § n.) 

He is gone on the mountain, he is lost to the forest, 
Like a summer dried fountain, when our need was the sorest : 
The fount, re appearing, from the rain drops shall borrow; 
But to us comes no cheering, to Duncan no morrow. 

(Rule I., § i.; II., § n.; I., n.) 



224 THE HYPHEN. 



RULE HI. 



The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their 
Pronunciation. 

The hyphen is used between the syllables of a word, 
to exhibit, as accurately as possible, its true pronuncia- 
tion ; no regard being paid to the mode in which it has 
been formed or derived. 

EXAMPLES. 



hab-it 


ap-a-thy 


as-tron-o-my 


pref-ace 


pref-er-enoe 


an-tip-o-des 


trib-ute 


trin-i-ty 


bi-og-ra-pher 


proph-et 


po-lyg-a-my 
REMARKS. 


rev-e-la-tion 



a. A syllable is a combination of letters uttered by one impulse 
of the voice ; as hob or ha in tbe word habit, according to the specific 
principle of syllabication which may be adopted. A single letter of 
a word, pronounced by itself, is also termed a syllable ; as i or o in 
the exclamation io ! 

b. The mode of syllabication laid down in the rule is, unques- 
tionably, the only one fitted for conveying the true sounds of words, 
or rather for making some approach to an accurate pronunciation ; 
and all spelling-books should be constructed on this principle, — a 
principle which, though recommended by Dr. Lowth and. adopted 
by lexicographers, has been neglected by some of our most popular 
writers of elementary works for children. It must, however, be 
acknowledged, that many words are divided in the same manner, 
whether regard be had to their pronunciation, or to the mode in 
which they have been formed ; as, horse-man, sa-cred, be-ing, na-tion, 
a-mend-ment; and that there are others, the true sounds of which 
cannot be correctly shown by any kind of syllabication, without a 
change in the letters ; such as the words acid, docile, ancient, specify, 
digit, register. 

c. The rule given above is adopted by American printers in the 
division of such words as cannot be entirely brought into one and 
the same line ; but the rule which follows is generally preferred by 
British typographers 



SYLLABICATION. 225 



RULE IV. 

The Division of Words into Syllables, according to their Form, 
Derivation, or Meaning. 

The hyphen is employed in words in such a manner 
as is best calculated to show their origin, composition, 
or import, and to exhibit the syllables in their neatest 
form. 

EXAMPLES. 



ha-bit 


a-pa-thy 


as-tro-no-my 


pre-face 


pre-fer-ence 


an-ti-po-des 


tri-bute 


tri-ni-ty 


bi-o-gra-pher 


pro-phet 


po-ly-ga-my 


re-ve-la-tion 




REMARKS. 





a. Agreeably to this rale, and partially in accordance with that 
which precedes it, — 

1. Compound and derivative words are resolved into their primi- 
tives; as, school-master, hand-writing, pen-knife, snuff-box, looking- g lass ; 
arch-angel, geo-logy, theo-cracy, ortho-graphy. 

2. Prefixes, affixes, and grammatical terminations, are separated ; 
as, dis-continue, en-able, trans-port ; shear-er, load-ed, print-ing ; 
king-dom, false-hood, differ-ence, command-ment. 

3. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, are divided; as, la-ity, 
a-eri-al, re-al, stere-otype, vi-al, pi-ety, li-on, tri-umph, co-alesce, po-et, 
medi-um, zo-ology, vow-el, cru-etiy, vacu-um. 

4. One consonant between two vowels is to be joined to the latter 
syllable ; as, ta-lent, fa-tal ; me-lon, le-ver ; spi-rit, si-lence ; cy-nic, 
ty-ro; le-ga-cy, mo-no-po-ly. Except a;, and single consonants when 
they belong to the former portion of a derivative word; as, ex-ile, 
ex-ist, ex-amine ; up-on, dis-ease, circum-ambient. 

5. Two or more consonants belong to the latter syllable, when 
they are capable of beginning a word ; as, ta-ble, stifle, lu-cre, o-gle, 
mau-gre, stro-p>he, destroy. 

6. But when the consonants cannot begin a word, or when the 
vowel preceding them is short, the first should be separated; as, 
ab-bey, ac-cent, vel-ium, ab-ject, gar-den, laun-dry, pam-phht ; sac-rifice, 
det-riment, blas-pheme, dis-tress, min-strel. 

15 



226 THE HYPHEN. 

b. It is desirable that compound and derivative words should, at 
the ends of lines, be divided in such a manner as to indicate their 
principal parts. Thus, school-master is preferable to schoolmas-ter, 
dis-approve to disap-prove, resent-ment to resentment, ortho-doxy to 
or-thodoxy ; though, as regards the analysis of words into syllables, 
the latter mode is unobjectionable. From the narrowness of the 
printed line, however, in some books, the principle recommended 
cannot always be adhered to. 

c. The terminations tion, sion, rial, tial, and many others, formerly 
pronounced as two syllables, but now only as one, must not be 
divided either in spelling or at the end of a line. 

d. A syllable consisting of only one letter, as the a in cre-ation, 
should not commence a line. This word would be better divided, 
crea-tion ; and so all others of a similar kind. But such a syllable, 
coming immediately after a primitive, is by some printers brought 
to the beginning ; as, consider-able. 

e. A line of print must not end with the first syllable of a word, 
when it consists of a single letter; as, a-bide, e-normous: nor begin 
with the last syllable, when it is formed of only two letters; as, 
nation-al, teach-er, similar-ly. For regard should be had to the prin- 
ciples of taste and beauty, as well as to the laws of syllabication. 

f. Three or more successive lines should not end with a hyphen. 
A little care on the part of the compositor will, in general, prevent 
an appearance so offensive to a good eye. Divisions, indeed, except 
for purposes of spelling and lexicography, should take place as 
seldom as possible. 



EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Divide the following words agreeably to both the preceding Rules ; namely, 
according to their pronunciation, and according to their composition or 
derivation .- — 

Habit, vivid, considerable, speculative, philosophy, modification, 
govern, individual, phenomenon, knowledge, elaborate, academical, 
progress, critical, vacuum, labyrinth, animal, physiology, revelation, 
constituent, reciprocally, vigor, accredited, curiosity, magnificent, 
privacy, cherish, valuable, apology, idolater, equilibrium, solemn, 
separate, metaphysics, liberal, modern, preface, gratify, biography, 
literature, nominal, philanthropy, theocracy, barometer, preparation, 
figure, natural, prelude, clamor, reformation, metropolis, represent, 
recognize, rhetoric, diminish, articulate, peasant, antipodes, misery, 



SYLLABICATION. 227 

recriminate, floriferous, desolate, preference, dedicate, bibliopolist, 
eloquent, irregular, ventriloquist, memorable, reputation, doxology, 
conspiracy, general, desultory, contribute, omnivorous, typographer, 
oblivion, democracy, polygamy, citizen, stenography, parish, talent, 
melodist, borough, prisoner, promise, clever, metal, discrimination, 
theology, cylinder, paradise, monitory, solitude, sycophant, nobility, 
cavalcade, rivulet, profitable, integrity, relative, jealous. 



Insert Vie hyphen in those places only in which the division appears best at 'Jit 
end and the beginning of lines, according to the Remarks, p. 226 : — 

Philosophy, intermediate, theology, magnificence, venturesome, 
biographer, questionable, lithography, professing, zoology, demigod, 
personate, widowhood, kaleidoscope, periphrasis, supervisor, geology, 
animation, abhorrence, government, tautology, permanent, classical, 
forgetfulness, superficial, congenial, circumstances, metamorphosis, 
subdivision, patronage, subordinate, beneficent, resistless, sufficient, 
superhuman, pantheism, disappointment, typographical, microscope, 
disinterestedness, benevolence, superficial, contradiction, sensibility, 
happiness, misanthropy, imperfect, circumference, counteracting, 
disproportionately, excitement, semicircle, predominate, artificial, 
portfolio, equilibrium, manufacture, preternatural, nomenclature, 
supernumerary, terraqueous, malefactor, primogeniture, resemble, 
suicide, transaction, intercept, education, counterfeit, superlative, 
transgression, supernatural, predestinate, typography, polysyllable, 
introduction, confident, philology, sympathy, misinform, spiritless, 
provision, appearance, belonging, cleverness, uniform, outnumber, 
bedchamber, gardening, fishmonger, disrespectful, plenipotentiary, 
doctorship, neighborhood, bedlamite, nonconformity, nightingale, 
antediluvian, parsonage, correspond, forgetfulness, superabundant, 
metaphorically, hydrophobia, antitrinitarian, putrefaction, alteration, 
haughtiness, semidiameter, improvement, proposition, serpentine, 
disjunction, intercourse, animalcule, bookselling, commonwealth, 
colloquial, reasoning, polyglot, puerility, correctness, understanding, 
preliminary, qualification, attaining, composition, commencement,' 
incompetence, exclusive, disapprobation, adventure, introduction, 
gentleman, trinity, acquaintance, consciousness, transubstantiation, 
considering, persuasion, trigonometry, parallelogram, successfully, 
improper, diffidence, moreover, inference, hydrostatics, recollection, 
ameliorative, authorities, unwilling, autocrat, accelerate, emolument, 
carnivorous, emaciated. 



228 



Sect. HI. — MARKS OF QUOTATION. 



Marks of Quotation [ " " ] are employed to 
show that the words of an author or a speaker are 
quoted. These marks consist of two inverted commas 
placed at the beginning, and two apostrophes at the 
end, of a quotation. 

EULE I. 

Words borrowed from a Speaker or an Author. 

A word, phrase, or passage, belonging to another, 
and introduced into one's own composition, is distin- 
guished by marks of quotation. 

EXAMPLE. 

To one who said, " I do not believe there is an honest man in the world," 
another replied, "It is impossible that any one man should know all the 
world, but quite possible that one may know himself." 

REMARKS. 

a. When a writer repeats his own language, and wishes to draw 
to it particular attention, he properly uses the same marks as he 
would employ were he transcribing the sentiments of another. Thus, 
if the author of the present work wished again to give directions on 
the grammatical points usually required before extracts, he might, 
instead of referring merely to page 108, copy from it the rule and 
certain comments, prefixing and appending the marks under notice, 
as follow: " A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a 
quotation, is separated by a comma from the clause which precedes 
it." "If, however, quotations or remarks extend to two or more 



QUOTATIONS. 229 

sentences, and are formally or specially introduced, a colon is 
preferable." " When an indirect quotation or a remark is preceded 
by a very brief clause, the comma is not required." 

b. Marks of quotation may be omitted where the matter taken is 
not given in the exact words of the author ; as, — 

Socrates said that he believed in the immortality of the soul. 

In the direct form, the sentence would be correctly written thus : — 

Socrates said, " I believe that the soul is immortal." 

c. It is usual to omit the quotation-marks when a mere phrase 
or saying from a foreign language is distinguished by Italics ; as, — 

•MZ mortalibus arduum est is a bold but encouraging assertion. 

d. In old works, it was a common practice to introduce all ex- 
tracts from Scripture in Italic characters ; but, except when there 
is a necessity for calling particular attention to certain words or 
expressions, authors now generally and very properly prefer using 
marks of quotation ; as, — 

One of the evangelists says, "Jesus wept." 

e. Titles of books, and names of ships, &c, are sometimes writ- 
ten without the inverted commas, and put in Italic characters ; as 
" Falconer, the author of The Shipwreck, embarked on board the 
Aurora frigate in the year 1769, and was supposed to have perished 
with the vessel at sea." But, as Italics give an irregular look to a 
printed page, quotation-marks are preferable ; as, — 

We may justly regard " Paradise Lost " as one of the noblest monuments 
of human genius. 

f. In speaking of certain words or phrases, some authors put 
them in Italics. Others, however, prefer placing them within mark3 
of quotation; and, for the reason given in Kemark e, this is the 
more eligible mode of exhibiting them ; as, — 

"We find the word " pharisaical " very useful in our modern speech. 

g. When an example or an extract, particularly if in verse, is 
begun in a new line, and set in a smaller type, the marks of quota- 
tion are by some writers dispensed with. In cases, however, of this 
kind, perhaps the generality of authors and printers use the inverted 
commas and the apostrophes, agreeably to the rule; and this usage 
is recommended, except in works containing numerous quotations, 
which are well known to be such, as in the present book. 



230 MARKS OF QUOTATION. 

EULE II. 
One Quotation within another. 

When one quotation is introduced within another, 
the included one should be preceded by a single in- 
verted comma, and closed by a single apostrophe. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. When treating of Christian orators, Maury asks the following apposite 
questions: "What is this you call eloquence? Is it the wretched trade of 
imitating that criminal, mentioned by a poet in his satires, who ' balanced his 
crimes before his judges with antithesis ' ? Is it the puerile secret of forming 
jejune quibbles ; of rounding periods ; of tormenting one's self by tedious 
studies, in order to reduce sacred instruction into a vain amusement? " 

2. In describing the vast influence of a perfect orator over the feelings 
and passions of his audience, Sheridan forcibly says, " Notwithstanding the 
diversity of minds in such a multitude, by the lightning of eloquence they 
are melted into one mass ; the whole assembly, actuated in one and the same 
way, become, as it were, but one man, and have but one voice. The universal 
cry is, 'Let us march against Philip; let us fight for our liberties; let us 
conquer or die ! ' " 

REMARKS. 

a. Double marks should be used before and after a quotation 
inserted in that which has been introduced into an extract; as, 
" Channing, the friend of humanity in every condition and under 
every garb, says, ' When I consider the greater simplicity of their 
lives, and their greater openness to the spirit of Christianity, I am 
not sure but that the " golden age " of manners is to begin among 
those who are now despaired of for their want of refinement.' " 

b. Some writers and printers observe the following direction, in 
preference to the rule given in the text: That a single inverted 
comma should be prefixed to a single quotation occurring in com- 
position, and a single apostrophe annexed to it; but that two 
inverted commas should be introduced before, and two apostrophes 
after, another quotation occurring within the primary one; as, 
1 There are times when the spirit, oppressed with pain, worn with 
toil, tired of tumult, sick at the sight of guilt, wounded in its love, 
baffled in its hope, and trembling in its faith, almost longs for the 
"wings of a dove, that it might fly away," and take refuge amidst 



ONE QUOTATION WITHIN ANOTHER. 231 

the "shady bowers," the "vernal airs," the "i*oses without thorns," 
the quiet, the beauty, the loveliness, of Eden.' But the great objec- 
tion to this mode of setting off extracts is, that, by using single 
marks to the quotations which are of primary importance, and 
double to those which are merely secondary, we exhibit the former 
less prominently than the latter. 

c. The marks under consideration may with propriety be omitted 
in some instances, where several quotations are so much involved 
one within another, that the insertion of all the inverted commas and 
the apostrophes would tend to obscure the meaning of the entire 
s; as, — 



In the New Testament we have the following words : " Jesus answered the 
Jews, ' Is it not written in your law, — I said, Ye are gods ? ' " 

By considering the example itself as an extract, there will be found 
here no fewer than five quotations; and yet, though two only are set 
off with quotation-marks, the passage is perhaps more intelligible, and 
to the eye certainly less offensive, than if printed thus : " In the New 
Testament we have the following words : ' Jesus answered the Jews, 
" Is it not written in your law, — ' I said, " Ye are gods " ' V " ' " 
Ridiculous as it may appear, this mode of exhibiting quotations is 
only the application of the principle contained in the rule, but car- 
ried out beyond its legitimate pm-pose and extent. 

d. Indeed, in quoting from such texts of Scripture as contain 
citations from other books of the sacred canon, it is usual to present 
them as they appear in the Common Version, — without any quota- 
tion-marks in the body of the passage ; as, — 

St. Paul thus expresses himself: " Therein is the righteousness of God 
revealed from faith to faith ; as it is written, The just shall live by faith. 
For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness, and 
unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness." In another 
place the apostle says, " David also describeth the blessedness of the man 
unto whom God imputeth righteousness without works, saying, Blessed are 
they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is 
the man to whom the Lord will not impute sin. Cometh this blessedness, 
then, upon the circumcision only? " &c. 

But the exhibiting of a quotation within a quotation without the 
inverted commas, though more pleasing to the eye, is less accurate, 
than it would be if they were used in a single form, as in the passage 
above, lines six and seven of Remark c. 

e. See page 156, Remark f; and page 161, Remark e. 



232 MARKS OF QUOTATION. 

RULE III. 
Extracts composed of Successive Paragraphs. 

When an extract is composed of successive para- 
graphs, each is commenced with inverted commas ; but 
the apostrophes are not used till the quotation finally 
terminates. 

EXAMPLE. 

To exemplify this rule, a passage, consisting of more than one paragraph, 
may be taken from an essay by Godwin : — 

" No subject is of more importance, in the morality of private life, than 
that of domestic or family life. 

" Every man has his ill humors, his fits of peevishness and exacerbation. 
Is it better that he should spend these upon his fellow-beings, or suffer them 
to subside of themselves? 

" It seems to be one of the most important of the arts of life, that men 
should not come too near each other, or touch in too many points. Excessive 
familiarity is the bane of social happiness." 

REMARKS. 

a. When phrases or sentences in an extract consist of portions 
not connected in the discourse or book from which they have been 
taken, each portion should begin and end with the quotation-marks, 
as in those cited on p. 228, Remark a ; unless several points (....) 
are inserted to indicate the omission, in which case it will be suf- 
ficient to put the marks of quotation at the beginning and the end 
of the whole extract, if it is contained in one paragraph. 

b. In the leading articles of newspapers, and sometimes in books, 
when particular attention would be drawn to an extract embodied 
in the text, the inverted commas are placed at the beginning of each 
line of the quotation; as, Slavery must fall, because it stands in 
" direct hostility to all the grand movements, principles, and reforms 
" of our age ; because it stands in the way of an advancing world. 
" One great idea stands out amidst the discoveries and improvements 
" of modern times. It is, that man is jiot to exercise arbitrary, 
" irresponsible power over man." But, except in the more transient 
class of publications, this mode of exhibiting extracts is now seldom 
used. 



QUOTATIONS. 233 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Show how the Rules and the Remarks (pp. 228-30) apply to the use or omission 
of quotation-marks in the following sentences : — 

The psalmist says again, " I am a stranger with thee and a so- 
journer, as all my fathers were." 

When Fenelon's library was on fire, " God be praised," said he, 
44 that it is not the dwelling of a poor man ! " 

I repeat what I said on a former occasion, that " no man can be 
happy who is destitute of good feelings and generous principles." 

" There is but one object," says St. Augustine, " greater than the 
soul; and that one is its Creator." 

Plato, hearing that some asserted he was a very bad man, said, 
" I shall take care so to live that nobody will believe them." 

" Let me make the ballads of a nation," said Fletcher of Saltoun, 
" and I care not who makes its laws." 

" Any man," it has been well said, " who has a proneness to see 
a beauty and fitness in all God's works, may find daily food for his 
mind even in an infant." 

A minister of some experience remarks, " I have heard more than 
one sufferer say, ' I am thankful ; God is good to me ; ' and, when 
I heard that, I said, ' It is good to be afflicted.' " 

The celebrated and ingenious Bishop of Cloyne, in his " Principles 
of Human Knowledge," denies, without any ceremony, the exist- 
ence of every kind of matter whatever. 

After Cicero, the literary history of the Eomans is written in one 
line of Tacitus, Gliscente adulations, magna ingenia deterrebantur ; 
" As adulation increased, great minds were deterred." 

A being crowned with all the blessings which men covet and 
admire, — with youth, health, beauty, rank, genius, and fame, — 
writes four cantos of melodious verse to prove that he is the most 
miserable of mortals. 

Trench weU says, " What a lesson the word ' diligence ' contains [ 
How profitable is it for every one of us to be reminded, — as we are 
reminded when we make ourselves aware of its derivation from dillgo, 
' to love,' — that the only secret of true industry in our work is love 
of that work! " 

To the man who walks among the flowers which he has tended, — 

" Each odoriferous leaf, 
Each opening blossom, freely breathes abroad 
Its gratitude, and thanks him with its sweets." 



234 MARKS OF QUOTATION. 



EXERCISE TO BE WRITTEN. 

Insert the marks of quotation agreeably to some of the directions given in 
pp. 228-32. 

Johnson's Lives of the English Poets may justly be considered 
as the noblest specimen of elegant and solid criticism which any 
age has produced. (Eule I. and Remark e.) 

Terrific examples of license and anarchy in Greece and Rome 
are quoted to prove, that man requires to be protected from himself; 
forgetting the profound wisdom wrapped up in the familiar inquiry, 
Quis custodiet ipsos custodes f Who shall guard the keepers ? (Rule I. 
and Remark c.) 

An eloquent preacher asks, Who would not far prefer our wintry 
storm, and the hoarse sighings of the east wind, as it sweeps around 
us, if they will brace the mind to nobler attainments, and the heart 
to better duties? [The author of this passage quotes the phrase, 
" the hoarse sighings of the east wind."] (Rule II.) 

What is the soul ? was a question once put to Marivaux. — I know 
nothing of it, he answered, but that it is spiritual and immortal. — 
Well, said his friend, let us ask Fontenelle, and he will tell us what 
it is. — No, cried Marivaux: ask anybody but Fontenelle; for he 
has too much good sense to know any more about it than we do. 
(Rule I.) 

D' Alembert congratulated a young man very coldly, who brought 
him the solution of a problem. I have done this to have a seat in 
the Academy, said the young man. — Sir, answered D'Alembert, 
with such motives you will never earn one. Science must be loved 
for its own sake, and not for the advantage to be derived. No other 
principle will enable a man to make true progress. (Rule I.) 



The following sarcastic rules for behavior are said by Goldsmith 
to have been drawn up by an indigent philosopher: — 

1. If you be a rich man, you may enter the room with three 
loud hems, march deliberately up to the chimney, and turn your 
back to the fire. 

2. If you be a poor man, I would advise you to shrink into the 
room as fast as you can, and place yourself, as usual, upon a corner 
of a chair, in a remote corner. 

3. If you be young, and live with an old man, I would advise 
you not to like gravy. I was disinherited myself for liking gravy. 
(Rule in.) 



235 



CHAPTER V. 

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS AND CHARACTERS. 



In addition to the sentential points and marks treated 
of in the preceding pages, there are other characters, 
sometimes occurring in English composition, which 
will now be explained. 



I. Brackets, or Crotchets [ ], are employed for 
the same purpose nearly as the marks of parenthesis ; 
but they are usually confined to words, phrases, or 
sentences, inserted in or appended to a quotation, and 
not belonging to it ; as, " The captain had several men 
died [who died] in the ship." 

Brackets are chiefly intended to give an explanation, to rectify a 
mistake, or to supply an omission. But they are also sometimes 
used in dictionaries and in poetry to separate such words as are 
put, for the saving of room, into lines to which they do not belong; 
and in psalms and hymns to include verses that may be omitted by 
a congregation. They are used, besides, in a single form, in printed 
dramas, to note the entrance or the departure of certain characters ; 
as, " [Exeunt Portia and Nerissa." 

Marks of parenthesis and the brackets are often employed indis- 
criminately ; but the following rule, from Parker's " Exercises in 
Rhetorical Reading," will aid the pupil in distinguishing the differ- 
ence as to their application: " Crotchets [the writer means marks of 
parenthesisj are used to enclose a sentence, or part of a sentence, 



236 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

which is inserted between the parts of another sentence : brackets 
are generally used to separate two subjects, or to enclose an expla- 
nation, note, or observation, standing by itself." 

Ths grammatical punctuation of the words or sentences enclosed 
by brackets, and of the context, when they require such pointing, 
should be the same as that adopted in respect to the parenthesis, and 
to the clauses between which it is inserted. — See pp. 168-70. 

Dashes are sometimes used, one before the first bracket, and 
another after the second, to lead the eye from the preceding portion 
of the main sentence to the latter. They may with propriety be 
introduced in such passages as the following: "I know the banker 
I deal with, or the physician I usually call in, — [' There is no need,' 
cried Dr. Slop (waking), 'to call in any physician in this case.'] — 
to be neither of them men of much religion." 



II. A Comma Inverted [ ' ] is sometimes used 
instead of a very small c, in many proper names 
beginning with Mac; as, M'Donald, the abbreviation 
of Macdonald. 

This mark seems to be getting out of use ; authors and printers 
now generally preferring the c, either on or above the line, as in 
McKenzie, M^Farlane. 

The same mark is sometimes annexed to the letter in proper 
names ; as, ''Neil : but an apostrophe is more frequently used, and 
is more correct; as, O'Neil. 

III. Two Commas [ „ ] are occasionally employed 
to indicate that something is understood which was ex- 
pressed in the line and word immediately above ; as, — 

John Jones, Esq Plymouth. 

John Smith, Esq „ 

By many printers the commas are inverted [thus, " ] ; but the 
mode of using them here presented, which was once very cftmmon, 
is a more exact imitation of handwriting. 

Names of different persons, though spelled in the same way, — as 
the word " John " in the preceding lines, — are commonly repeated. 



THE INDEX, BRACE, ETC 237 

IV. The Index, or Hand, points out a passage to 
which special attention is directed ; as, " Iggr All orders 
will be promptly and carefully attended to." 



V. Three Stars, placed in this form [%*], or 
N.B., the initials of nota bene, " mark well," are some- 
times used for the same purposes as the index. 

The characters explained in the two preceding paragraphs are 
employed chiefly in cards, handbills, advertisements, and catalogues ; 
seldom in books. 



VI. The Caret [ a ] is used, only in manuscript, 
to show where a letter or a word was accidentally 
omitted, but which has afterwards been placed over 
the line ; as, — 

p are 

Disapointments and trials often blessings !n disguise. 
A A 



VII. The Brace [ ' — r-' ] is used to connect a 
number of words with one common term ; as, — 

3 barleycorns ) ( 1 inch \ 

12 inches . . . . f are equal to ] 1 foot [ long measure. 
3 feet ) (1 yard ) 

This character is often found serviceable in lists of articles and 
in tabular matter, where the object is to save room, or to avoid 
repetition. The inside of a brace should, as in the example, be 
turned to that part of the matter which contains most lines. 

The brace was once generally used to bind together a triplet, or 
three lines of poetry having the same rhyme ; but this practice is 
becoming obsolete. 

A brace is sometimes put in the side-margin of a page to separate 
dates, when placed there, from the text. 



238 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

VIII. Marks of Ellipsis are formed by means 
of a long dash, or of a succession of points or stars 

[ , . . . ., ****], of various lengths ; and are 

used to indicate the omission of letters in a word, of 
words in a sentence, or of sentences in a paragraph ; 
as, — 

1. C s is not uniformly distinguished for dignity, wisdom, patriotism 

or philanthropy. 

2. If the great have no other glory than that of their ancestors ; if theii 
titles are their only virtues, .... their birth dishonors them, even in the 
estimation of the world. 

3. Some persons believe that there are no longer any duties to be fulfilled 
beyond the tomb ; and there are but few who know how to be friends to the 
dead. ******** The name of our friends, then; glory, their 
family, have still claims on our affection, which it would be guilt not to feel. 
They should live still in our heart by the emotions which subsist there ; in 
our memory, by our frequent remembrance of them ; in our voice, by our 
eulogiums ; in our conduct, by our imitation of their virtues. 



In the first example, " C s " is substituted for 

the second, a single clause is omitted; and, in the third, several 
sentences are left out by the transcriber. Periods are considered 
much less offensive to the eye than asterisks. 

To avoid repetitions in catalogues, a dash is sometimes used 
instead of the word or words immediately above ; as, — 

Pope's Works, with Notes and Illustrations, 6 vols. calf. 
Rape of the Lock, and other Poems. 

For other elliptical uses of the dash, see pp. 175, 191, and 195. 



IX. Leaders are dots or periods, used in contents 
and indexes of books, and in similar matter, to lead 
the eye to the end of a line, for the completion of the 
sense; as, — 

Page. 

Comma . 27 

Semicolon 113 

Colon • ... 129 

Period 142 



ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS. 239 

X. Accents. — There are three marks, termed 
Accents, placed over the vowels ; namely, the Acute 
[ ' ], as in fancy ; the Grave [ v ], as in favor ; and 
the Circumflex [ A ], as in fall The acute accent 
commonly represents a sharp, the grave a depressed, 
and the circumflex a broad sound. 

The grave accent is sometimes placed in verse over the vowel e, 
to show that it must be fully pronounced; as, cankerM, Dirce. 
See p. 199, Remark g. 

These characters are also used to denote the inflections of the 
voice, according to the system invented by Walker ; and for various 
purposes in the Latin, French, and other languages. 



XI. Marks of Quantity. — There are other 
three marks, indicating the pronunciation, which are 
sometimes classed among the accents ; namely, the 
Long [ " ], as in rosy ; the Breve, or Short [ " ], as 
in folly ; and the Diaeresis [ ' ], as in aerial. 

The diaeresis is usually placed over the latter of two vowels, and 
denotes that they are to be pronounced separately. 



XII. The Cedilla is a mark resembling a comma 
placed under the letter p, when it has the sound of 
s before a or o, in words taken from the French ; as, 
fagade. 



XIII. The Tilde [ * ] is an accentual mark, placed 

over n in Spanish to give that letter a liquid sound ; as, 

senor, sir. 

Tf great accuracy is required, all such words should be thus printed 
when occurring in English composition. 



240 MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

XIV. Marks of Reference. — The Asterisk, or 
Star [ * ], the Obelisk, or Dagger [ f ], the Double 
Dagger [ J ], the Section [ § ], Parallel Lines [ || ], 
and the Paragraph [ % ], are used, in the order here 
presented, when references are made to observations 
or notes in the margin. 

When references are numerous, the above marks, when they have 
been all used in one and the same page, and others are required, 
should be doubled or trebled; as, **, fff. 

But, for purposes of reference, many authors prefer lowercase 
Italic letters or Arabic figures, enclosed by marks of parenthesis 
(a) or (1): some using the letters throughout the alphabet, or the 
figures as far as 10 or 100 inclusive, then beginning again with (a) or 
(1); and others commencing each page with the first letter or figure- 
As, however, all the above marks have a rather clumsy appear 
ance, particularly when they often occur in the same page, it has, 
in more recent times, been regarded as an improvement to use, in 
their order, letters or figures of a smaller size, technically called, 
from their standing above the line, Superiors ; as, a or 1 . If the notes 
are placed in the margin, it is recommended that the letter « or 
figure * be the first reference of every page in which notes occur; but 
that figures, and not letters, be employed in regular succession, as far 
as required, if the notes are introduced at the end of the volume. 

The Asterisk is used in some dictionaries to note, either that a 
word is of Greek origin, or is distinguished by some other pecu- 
liarity; and the Obelisk, that a word or phrase is barbarous or 
obsolete. In Eoman-Catholic church-books, the asterisk is used to 
divide each verse of a psalm into two parts, showing where the 
responses begin. The obelisk is inserted, instead of the proper 
square cross, in those places of the printed prayers and benedictions 
where the priest is to make the sign of the cross. It is also used in 
the briefs of the pope, and in the mandates of archbishops and 
bishops, who put this symbol immediately before the signature of 
their names. 

The mark termed the Section [ § ] is sometimes employed, as in 
Locke's " Essay on the Human Understanding," to divide books or 
chapters into smaller portions ; and that called the Paragraph [ ^ ] 
occurs frequently in the authorized version of the Bible. 



241 



CHAPTER VI. 

GENERAL EXERCISES, 

PUNCTUATED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN IN THE 
PRESENT WORK. 



The following Exercises are presented in the hope, 
that they will be not only perused as a source of plea- 
sure and general improvement, but also studied with 
relation to the art which they are meant to exemplify. 
This can be done in one of two ways : The reader 
may, in passing from one sentence to another, assign, 
either mentally or to a teacher, the reasons for the 
punctuation adopted, by referring to the rules or 
the remarks which are laid down in the preceding 
pages as applicable to each separate case. Or he may 
write out the exercises, one at a time, without any 
points whatever ; and, in the course of a day or two, 
take his transcribed copy, and, without aid from the 
book, insert such marks as he thinks will best exhibit 
the grammatical structure of the composition, the con- 
nections or relations subsisting between the various 
parts of its sentences, and the sense which the author 
intended to express. He may then compare his manu- 
script with the print, in order to ascertain in what 
respects they correspond or differ ; introduciDg the. 
16 



242 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

points which he has omitted, or rectifying the errors he 
has made. If the defects or mistakes are numerous, 
he should carefully transcribe the exercise a second 
time. 

The Index, at the end of the book, will enable the 
pupil, when his memory fails him, to discover any 
particular rule or remark to which he may have occa- 
sion to refer. 



L — PRIDE AND HUMILITY. 

Pride and humility are always relative terms.. They imply a 
comparison of some sort with an object higher or lower; and the 
same mind, with actual excellence exactly the same, and witb 
the same comparative attainments in every one around, may thus 
be either proud or humble, as it looks above or looks beneath. In 
the great scale of society, there is a continued rise from one excel- 
lence to another excellence, internal or external, intellectual or 
moral. Wherever we may fix, there is still some one whom we 
may find superior or inferior; and these relations are mutually 
convertible as we ascend or descend. The shrub is taller than the 
flower which grows in its shade ; the tree, than the shrub ; the rock, 
than the tree ; the mountain, than the single rock ; and above all are 
the sun and the heavens. It is the same in the world of life. From 
that Almighty Being who is the Source of all life, to the lowest of 
his creatures, what innumerable gradations may be traced, even in 
the ranks of excellence on our own earth ! each being higher than 
that beneath, and lower than that above; and thus, all to all, objects 
at once of pride or humility, according as the comparison may be 
made with the greater or with the less. 

Of two minds, then, possessing equal excellence, which is the 
more noble, — that which, however high the excellence attained by 
it, has still some nobler excellence in view, to which it feels its own 
inferiority; or that which, having risen a few steps in the ascent of 
intellectual and moral glory, thinks only of those beneath, and 
rejoices in an excellence which would appear to it of little value if 



PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 243 

only it lifted a single glance to the perfection above? Yet this 
habitual tendency to look beneath, rather than above, is the character 
of mind which is denominated " pride; " while the tendency to look 
above, rather than below, and to feel an inferiority, therefore, which 
others perhaps do not perceive, is the character which is denomi- 
nated "humility." Is it false, then, or even extravagant, to say that 
humility is truly the nobler; and that pride, which delights in the 
contemplation of abject objects beneath, is truly in itself more 
abject than that meekness of heart which is humble because it has 
greater objects, and which looks with reverence to the excellence 
that is above it, because it is formed with a capacity of feeling all 
the worth of that excellence which it reveres ? . . . 

The accomplished philosopher and man of letters, to whom the 
great names of all who have been eminent in ancient and modem 
times, in all the nations in which the race of man has risen to glory, 
are familiar, almost like the names of those with whom he is living 
in society, — who has thus constantly before his mind images of 
excellence of the highest order, and who, even in the hopes which 
he dares to form, feels how small a contribution it will be in his 
power to add to the great imperishable stock of human wisdom, — 
may be proud indeed ; but his pride will be of a sort that is tem- 
pered with humility, and will be humility itself if compared with 
the pride of a pedant or sciolist, who thinks, that, in adding the 
result of some little discovery which he may have fortunately made, 
he is almost doubling that mass of knowledge in which it is scarcely 
perceived as an element. 

Pride, then, as a character of self-complacent exultation, is not 
the prevailing cast of mind of those who are fonned for genuine 
excellence. He who is formed for genuine excellence has before 
him an ideal perfection, — that semper melius aliquid, — which makes 
excellence itself, however admirable to those who measure it only 
with their weaker powers, seem to his own mind, as compared with 
what he has ever in his own mental vision, a sort of failure. He 
thinks less of what he has done than of what it seems possible to 
do ; and he is not so much proud of merit attained, as desirous of a 
merit that has not yet been attained by him. 

It is in this way that the very religion which ennobles man leads 
him, not to pride, but to humility. It elevates him from the smoke 
and dust of earth ; but it elevates him above the darkness, that he 
may see better the great heights that are above him. It shows him, 
not the mere excellence of a few frail creatures, as fallible as him- 



244 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

self, but excellence, the very conception of which is the highest 
effort that can be made by man : exhibiting thus constantly what it 
will be the only honor worthy of his nature to imitate, however 
faintly; and checking his momentary pride, at every step of his 
glorious progress, by the brightness and the vastness of what is still 
before him. 

May I not add to these remarks, that it is in this way we are to 
account for that humility which is so peculiarly a part of the Chris- 
tian character, as contrasted with the general pride which other 
systems either recommend or allow? The Christian religion is, 
indeed, as has been often sarcastically said by those who revile it, 
the religion of the humble in heart; but it is the religion of the 
humble, only because it presents to our contemplation a higher 
excellence than was ever before exhibited to man. The proud look 
down upon the earth, and see nothing tnat creeps upon its surface 
more noble than themselves: the humble look upward to their God. 

Thomas Brown. 



II. — ABOU BEN ADHEM. 

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!) 

Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 

And saw within the moonlight of his room, 

Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 

An angel writing in a book of gold. 

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold ; 

And to the presence in the room he said, 

" What writest thou V " The vision raised its head, 

And, with a look made of all sweet accord, 

Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 

" And is mine one? " asked Abou. " Nay, not so," 

Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 

But cheerly still ; and said, " I pray thee, then, 

Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night 

It came again, with a great wakening light, 

And showed the names whom love of God had blest; 

And, lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 

Leigh Hunt. 



PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 245 



in. — PANEGYRIC ON ENGLAND. 

No character is perfect among nations, more than among men ; 
but it must needs be conceded, that, of all the states of Europe, 
England has been, from an early period, the most favored abode of 
liberty; the only part of Europe, where, for any length of time, 
constitutional liberty can be said to have a stable existence. We 
can scarcely contemplate with patience the idea, that we might have 
been a Spanish colony, a Portuguese colony, or a Dutch colony. We 
can scarcely compare with coolness the inheritance which was trans- 
mitted to us by our fathers, Avith that which we must have received 
from almost any other country, — absolute government, military 
despotism, and the "holy inquisition." .... What hope can there be 
for the colonies of nations which possess themselves no spring of 
improvement, and tolerate none in the regions over which they rule ; 
whose administration sets no bright examples of parliamentary inde- 
pendence ; whose languages send out no reviving lessons of sound and 
practical science, ... of manly literature, of sound philosophy ; but 
repeat, with every ship that crosses the Atlantic, the same debasing 
voice of despotism, bigotry, and antiquated superstition V 

What citizen of our republic is not grateful, in the contrast which 
our history presents ? Who does not feel, what reflecting American 
does not acknowledge, the incalculable advantages derived to this 
land out of the deep fountains of civil, intellectual, and moral truth, 
from which we have drawn in England V What American does not 
feel proud that his fathers were the countrymen of Bacon, of Newton, 
and of Locke ? Who does not know, that, while every pulse of civil 
liberty in the heart of the British empire beat warm and full in the 
bosom of our ancestors, the sobriety, the firmness, and the dignity, 
with which the cause of free principles struggled into existence here, 
constantly found encouragement and countenance from the friends 
of liberty there ? Who does not remember, that, when the Pilgrims 
went over the sea, the prayers of the faithful British confessors, in 
all the quarters of their dispersion, went over with them, while their 
aching eyes were strained till the star of hope should go up in the 
western skies? And who wiU ever forget, that, in that eventful 
struggle which severed these youthful republics from the British 
crown, there was not heard, throughout our continent in arms, a 
voice which spoke louder for the rights of America, than that of 
Burke or of Chatham within the walls of the British Parliament 



246 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

and at the foot of the British throne? No: for myself, I can truly 
say, that, after my native land, I feel a tenderness and a reverence 
for that of my fathers. The pride I take in my own country makes 
me respect that from which we are sprung. In touching the soil of 
England, I seem to return, like a descendant, to the old family seat; 
to come back to the abode of an aged and venerable parent. I 
acknowledge this great consanguinity of nations. The sound of my 
native language, beyond the sea, is a music to my ear, beyond the 
richest strains of Tuscan softness or Castilian majesty. I am not 
yet in a land of strangers, while surrounded by the manners, the 
habits, and the institutions under which I have been brought up. I 
wander delighted through a thousand scenes, which the historians 
and the poets have made familiar to us, of which the names are inter- 
woven with our earliest associations. I tread with reverence the spots 
where I can retrace the footsteps of our suffering fathers : the plea- 
sant land of their birth has a claim on my heart. It seems to me a 
classic, yea, a holy land ; rich in the memory of the great and good, 
the champions and the martyrs of liberty, the exiled heralds of truth ; 
and richer as the parent of this land of promise in the West. 

I am not — I need not say I am not — the panegyrist of England. 
I am not dazzled by her riches, nor awed by her power. The sceptre, 
the mitre, and the coronet, — stars, garters, and blue ribbons, — seem 
to me poor things for great men to contend for. Nor is my admira- 
tion awakened by her armies mustered for the battles of Europe, her 
navies overshadowing the ocean, nor her empire grasping the farthest 
East. It is these, and the price of guilt and blood by which they are 
too often maintained, which are the cause why no friend of liberty 
can salute her with undivided affections. But it is the cradle and 
the refuge of free principles, though often persecuted; the school of 
religious liberty, the more precious for the struggles through which 
it has passed; the tombs of those who have reflected honor on all 
who speak the English tongue ; it is the birthplace of our fathers, the 
home of the Pilgrims, — it is these which I love and venerate in 
England. I should feel ashamed of an enthusiasm for Italy and 
Greece, did I not also feel it for a land like this. In an American, it 
would seem to me degenerate and ungrateful to hang with passion 
upon the traces of Homer and Virgil, and follow without emotion the 
nearer and plainer footsteps of Shakspeare and Milton. I should 
think him cold in his love for his native land who felt no melting in 
his heart for that other native country which holds the ashes of his 
forefathers. Edward Everett. 



PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 247 



IV. — THE PEN AND THE PEESS. 

Young Genius walked out by the mountains and streams, 
Entranced by the power of his own pleasant dreams, 
Till the silent, the wayward, the wandering thing 
Found a plume that had fallen from a passing bird's wing: 
Exulting and proud, like a boy at his play, 
He bore the new prize to his dwelling away; 
He gazed for a while on its beauties, and then 
He cut it, and shaped it, and called it a Pen. 

But its magical use he discovered not yet, 

Till he dipped its bright lips in a fountain of jet; 

And, oh ! what a glorious thing it became ! 

For it spoke to the world in a language of flame ; 

While its master wrote on, like a being inspired, 

Till the hearts of the millions were melted or fired : 

It came as a boon and a blessing to men, — 

The peaceful, the pure, the victorious Pen. 

Young Genius went forth on his rambles once more, 

The vast, sunless caverns of earth to explore ; 

He searched the rude rock, and with rapture he found 

A substance unknown, which he brought from the ground ; 

He fused it with fire, and rejoiced at the change, 

As he moulded the ore into characters strange, 

Till his thoughts and his efforts were crowned with success ; 

For an engine uprose, and he called it the Pbess. 

The Pen and the Press, blest alliance ! combined 
To soften the heart, and enlighten the mind ; 
For that to the treasures of knowledge gave birth, 
And this sent them forth to the ends of the earth : 
Their battles for truth were triumphant indeed, 
And the rod of the tyrant was snapped like a reed ; 
They were made to exalt us, to teach us, to bless, 
Those invincible brothers, — the Pen and the Press. 

John Critchley Prince. 



248 GENERAL EXERCISES. 



V. — A TASTE FOE READING. 

We cannot linger in the beautiful creations of inventive genius, 
or pursue the splendid discoveries of modern science, without a new 
sense of the capacities and dignity of human nature, which natu- 
rally leads to a sterner self-respect, to manlier resolves and higher 
aspirations. We cannot read the ways of God to man as revealed 
in the history of nations, of sublime virtues as exemplified in the 
lives of great and good men, without falling into that mood of 
thoughtful admiration, which, though it be but a transient glow, is a 
purifying and elevating influence while it lasts. The study of his- 
tory is especially valuable as an antidote to self-exaggeration. It 
teaches lessons of humility, patience, and submission. When we 
read of realms smitten with the scourge of famine or pestilence, or 
strewn with the bloody ashes of war ; of grass growing in the streets 
of great cities ; of ships rotting at the wharves ; of fathers burying 
their sons ; of strong men begging their bread ; of fields untilled, 
and silent workshops, and despairing countenances, — we hear a 
voice of rebuke to our own clamorous sorrows and peevish com- 
plaints. We learn that pain and suffering and disappointment are 
a part of God's providence, and that no contract was ever yet 
made with man by which virtue should secure to him temporal 
happiness. 

In books, be it remembered, we have the best products of the 
best minds. We should any of us esteem it a great privilege to pass 
an evening with Shakspeare or Bacon, were such a thing possible. 
But, were we admitted to the presence of one of these illustrious 
men, we might find him touched with infirmity, or oppressed with 
weariness, or darkened with the shadow of a recent trouble, or 
absorbed by intrusive and tyrannous thoughts. To us the oracle 
might be dumb, and the light eclipsed. But, when we take down 
one of their volumes, we run no such risk. Here we have their 
best thoughts, embalmed in their best words ; immortal flowers of 
poetry, wet with Castalian dews, and the golden fruit of wisdom 
that had long ripened on the bough before it was gathered. Here 
we find the growth of the choicest seasons of the mind, when mortal 
cares were forgotten, and mortal weaknesses were subdued ; and the 
soul, stripped of its vanities and its passions, lay bare to the finest 
effluences of truth and beauty. We may be sure that Shakspeare 
never out-talked his Hamlet, nor Bacon his Essays. Great writers 



PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 249 

are indeed best known through their books. How little, for instance, 
do we know of the life of Shakspeare ; but how much do we know 
of him ! . 

For the knowledge that comes from books, I would claim no more 
than it is fairly entitled to. I am well aware that there is no inevi- 
table connection between intellectual cultivation, on the one hand, 
and individual virtue or social well-being, on the other. " The tree 
of knowledge is not the tree of life." I admit that genius and learn- 
ing are sometimes found in combination with gross vices, and not 
unfrequently with contemptible weaknesses ; and that a community 
at once cultivated and corrupt is no impossible monster. But it is 
no overstatement to say, that, other things being equal, the man 
who has the greatest amount of intellectual resources is in the least 
danger from inferior temptations, — if for no other reason, because 
he has fewer idle moments. The ruin of most men dates from some 
vacant hour. Occupation is the armor of the soul; and the train 
of Idleness is borne up by all the vices. I remember a satirical 
poem, in which the Devil is represented as fishing for men, and 
adapting his baits to the taste and temperament of his prey; but the 
idler, he said, pleased him most, because he bit the naked hook. To 
a young man away from home, friendless and forlorn in a great city, 
the hours of peril are those between sunset and bedtime; for the 
moon and stars see more of evil in a single hour than the sun in his 
whole day's circuit. The poet's visions of evening are all compact 
of tender and soothing images. It brings the wanderer to his home, 
the child to his mother's arms, the ox to his stall, and the weary 
laborer to his rest. But to the gentle-hearted youth who is thrown 
upon the rocks of a pitiless city, and stands " homeless amid a thou- 
sand homes," the approach of evening brings with it an aching sense 
of loneliness and desolation, which comes down upon the spirit like 
darkness upon the earth. In this mood, his best impulses become a 
snare to him ; and he is led astray because he is social, affectionate, 
sympathetic, and warm-hearted. If there be a young man thus 
circumstanced, within the sound of my voice, let me say to him, that 
books are the friends of the friendless, and that a library is the home 
of the homeless. A taste for reading will always carry you into the 
best possible company, and enable you to converse with men who 
will instruct you by their wisdom, and charm you by their wit 5 
who will soothe you when fretted, refresh you when weary, counsel 
you when perplexed, and sympathize with you at all times. 

George S. Hillard. 



250 GENERAL EXERCISES. 



VI. — RELATIVE PERFECTION. 

There is a relative, as well as a more general, perfection in man, 
which must not be lost sight of in examining the question of his 
proper vocation in life. There is required of him, not only a culture 
of his whole being as a man, but also a diligent and faithful adapta- 
tion of certain of his powers to the particular circumstances in 
which he is placed. Life's purpose is only adequately accomplished 
in discharging both these claims; and, indeed, the more limited 
service is a necessary condition of the general development. You 
find yourself, then, occupying a given position in the world. It has 
its appointed duties, its special opportunities of usefulness, trials 
also, difficulties and temptations of its own. Take your lot as it is 
assigned you, without murmuring. Make the best of it; and, if in 
the eyes of men it seems unhonored and unenviable, ennoble it by 
your own spirit, and work your way through it, by character and 
honest industry, to something better and happier. If, on the other 
hand, you find it accord with your inclination, and open before you 
a fair prospect of worldly advancement, be assured there is nothing 
irreligious in honorably aiming at success and eminence in it, and 
still less in openly avowing that such is your object. Every pursuit 
which conduces to the welfare of the world has its appropriate 
honor attending it ; and a genuine virtue is developed by enthusiasm 
for what is highest in our own line of action. You may treat life as 
a problem, which has to be wrought out to a successful result, with 
certain moral conditions attached to it. Do not, because it looks 
difficult, timorously shrink from attempting the solution ; but work 
through every part of it, whether you get the whole result or not, 
without violating one of its moral conditions. Draw the utmost 
from it that it will yield for temporal prosperity, for social weight 
and position, for honor, usefulness, mental culture, and refined en- 
joyment, consistently with the strictest integrity, with health and 
the exercise of the affections, with a remembrance of the end of 
life and a cheerful submission to the divine will. Whatever your 
vocation in life, — whether you labor with the head or with the 
hand; whether you write books, or manufacture cloth; whether 
your ships cross every sea, or your whole stock in trade is contained 
within the four walls of your humble shop ; whether you sit on the 
bench of justice, or earn your honest wages from week to week, — 
honor your work as assigned you by God, who regards not its 



PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 251 

subject-matter, but the spirit in which it is performed ; and, as in 
his sight, with a loyal and devoted heart, strive to be outdone by no 
one in the completeness and efficiency of its execution. 

This is the healthy view of our human world. Contentment, 
comibrt, abundance, depend on its wide diffusion. It would put 
every one in his proper place, and fit him with his proper task. It 
would let none be idle, and leave none in want. It would abolish 
useless privilege, and bring all under the constraint of wholesome 
duty. This view reconciles earth and heaven. While we are in the 
world, it makes us, in the best of senses, friends with the world, 
but not less fitted for heaven when we pass away. It is also the 
honest and sincere view. Thousands who disown it act upon it; and 
none more so, and with a keener eye even to selfish advancement, 
than some who put forth an exclusive claim to the religious cha- 
racter. Such is the course of action which contributes to relative 
perfection, by linking our individual lives through specific duties 
with the general well-being of the world. 

John James Tayler. 



VII. — LABOR NOT LOST. 

A genial moment oft has given 

What years of toil and pain, 
Of long industrious toil, have striven 

To win, and all in vain : 
Yet count not, when thine end is won, 

That labor merely lost; 
Nor say it had been wiser done 

To spare the painful cost. 

When, heaped upon the altar, lie 

All things to feed the fire, 
One spark alighting from on high, 

The flames at once aspire : 
But those sweet gums and fragrant woods, 

Its rich materials rare, 
By tedious quest o'er lands and floods 

Had first been gathered there. 

K. C. Trench. 



252 GENERAL EXERCISES. 



VIII. — ANCIENT AND MODERN WRITERS. 

The classics possess a peculiar charm, from the circumstance 
that they have been the models, I might almost say the masters, of 
composition and thought in all ages. In the contemplation of these 
august teachers of mankind, we are filled with conflicting emotions. 
They are the early voice of the world, better remembered and 
more cherished still than all the intermediate words that have been 
uttered ; as the lessons of childhood still haunt us when the impres- 
sions of later years have been effaced from the mind. But they 
show with most unwelcome frequency the tokens of the world's 
childhood, before passion had yielded to the sway of reason and the 
affections. They want the highest charm of purity, of righteousness, 
of elevated sentiments, of love to God and man. It is not in the 
frigid philosophy of the Porch and the Academy that we are to seek 
these; not in the marvellous teachings of Socrates, as they come 
mended by the mellifluous words of Plato ; not in the resounding line 
of Homer, on whose inspiring tale of blood Alexander pillowed his 
head; not in the animated strain of Pindar, where virtue is pictured 
in the successful strife of an athlete at the Isthmian games ; not in 
the torrent of Demosthenes, dark with self-love and the spirit of 
vengeance ; not in the fitful philosophy and intemperate eloquence 
of Tully; not in the genial libertinism of Horace, or the stately 
atheism of Lucretius. No : these must not be our masters ; in none 
of these are we to seek the way of life. For eighteen hundred years, 
the spirit of these writers has been engaged in weaponless contest 
with the Sermon on the Mount, and those two sublime command- 
ments on which hang all the law and the prophets. The strife is 
still pending. Heathenism, which has possessed itself of such siren 
forms, is not yet exorcised. It still tempts the young, controls the 
affairs of active life, and haunts the meditations of age. 

Our own productions, though they may yield to those of the 
ancients in the arrangement of ideas, in method, in beauty of form, 
and in freshness of illustration, are immeasurably superior in the 
truth, delicacy, and elevation of their sentiments ; above all, in the 
benign recognition of that great Christian revelation, the brother- 
hood of man. How vain are eloquence and poetry, compared with 
this heaven-descended truth! Put in one scale that simple utter- 
ance, and in the other the lore of antiquity, with its accumulating 



PUNCTUATION EXEMPLIFIED. 253 

glosses and commentaries, and the last will be light and trivial in 
the balance. Greek poetry has been likened to the song of the 
nightingale, as she sits in the rich, symmetrical crown of the palm- 
tree, trilling her thick-warbled notes; but even this is less sweet 
and tender than the music of the human heart. 

Charles Sumner, 



IX. — THE TRUE SOURCE OF REFORM. 

The great element of reform is not born of human wisdom; it 
does not draw its life from human organizations. I find it only in 
Christianity. " Thy kingdom come," — there is a sublime and 
pregnant burden in this prayer. It is the aspiration of every soul 
that goes forth in the spirit of reform. For what is the significance 
of this prayer ? It is a petition that all holy influences would pene- 
trate and subdue and dwell in the heart of man, until he shall think 
and speak and do good from the very necessity of his being. So 
would the institutions of error and wrong crumble and pass away. 
So would sin die out from the earth; and, the human soul living 
in harmony with the divine will, this earth would become like 
heaven. 

It is too late for the reformers to sneer at Christianity ; it is fool 
ishness for them to reject it. In it are enshrined our faith in human 
progress, our confidence in reform. It is indissolubly connected with 
all that is hopeful, spiritual, capable, in man. That men have mis- 
understood it and perverted it, is true. But it is also true that the 
noblest efforts for human melioration have come out of it, have been 
based upon it. Is it not so ? Come, ye remembered ones, who sleep 
the sleep of the just, who took your conduct from the line of Chris- 
tian philosophy ! — come from your tombs, and answer. 

Come, Howard! from the gloom of the prison and the taint of 
the lazar-house, and show us what philanthropy can do when imbued 
with the spirit of Jesus. Come, Eliot ! from the thick forest where 
the red man listens to the word of life ; come, Penn ! from thy sweet 
counsel and weaponless victory, — and show us what Christian zeal 
and Christian love can accomplish with the rudest barbarians or the 
fiercest hearts. Come, Raikes! from thy labors with the ignorant 
and the poor, and show us with what an eye this faith regards the 
lowest and least of our race ; and how diligently it labors, not for 



254 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

the body, not for the rank, but for the plastic soul that is to course 
the ages of immortality. 

And ye, who are a great number, — ye nameless ones, — who 
have done good in your narrower spheres, content to forego renown 
oh earth, and seeking your reward in the record on high ! come, and 
tell us how kindly a spirit, how lofty a purpose, or how strong a 
courage, the religion ye professed can breathe into the poor, the 
humble, and the weak. 

Go forth, then, Spirit of Christianity! to thy great work of re- 
form. The Past bears witness to thee in the blood of thy martyrs, 
and the ashes of thy saints and heroes. The Present is hopeful 
because of thee. The Future shall acknowledge thy omnipotence. 

E. H. Chapin. 



X. — GREAT MEN GENERALLY GOOD. 

(See p. 124.) 

Those who have shone in all ages as the lights of the world; the 
most celebrated names that are recorded in the annals of fame; 
legislators, the founders of states, and the fathers of their country, 
on whom succeeding ages have looked back with filial reverence ; 
patriots, the guardians of the laws, who have stemmed the torrent of 
corruption in every age ; heroes, the saviours of their country, who 
have returned victorious from the field of battle, or, more than victo- 
rious, who have died for their country ; philosophers, who have opened 
the book of nature, and explained the wonders of almighty power ; 
bards, who have sung the praises of virtue and of virtuous men, 
whose strains carry them down to immortality, — with a few excep- 
tions, have been uniformly on the side of goodness, and have been as 
distinguished in the temple of fame. It was one of the maxims which 
governed their lives, that there is nothing in nature which can com- 
pensate wickedness; that, although the rewards and punishments 
which influence illiberal and ungenerous minds were set aside ; that, 
although the thunders of the Almighty were hushed, and the gates of 
paradise were open no more, they would follow religion and virtue for 
their own sake, and co-operate with eternal Providence in perpetual 
endeavors to favor the good, to depress the bad, and to promote the 
happiness of the whole creation. 

John Logan. 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX. 



USES OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 



Though the subject of capital letters is but indirectly 
allied to punctuation, it may be suitable here to lay down 
a few principles, useful to all who are desirous of com- 
bining taste and propriety in their compositions, espe- 
cially to persons likely to become in any way connected 
with the public press. It was formerly the custom to 
use capitals with greater frequency and less discrimina- 
tion than it is at the present day ; almost every noun, 
nay, in some cases almost every word of the slightest 
importance, having had its initial thus distinguished. 
The following is a moderate specimen of the style 
alluded to, taken from Clarendon's " History of the Re- 
bellion," where he treats of Lord Strafford's death : — 

" Thus Fell the greatest Subject in power, and little inferior to 
any in Fortune that was at that time in any of the three Kingdoms ; 
Who could well remember the time when he led those People who 
then pursued him to his Grave. He was a man of great Parts, and 
extraordinary Endowments of Nature; not unadorned with some 
addition of Art and Learning, though that again was more improved 
and illustrated by the other." 

But as this practice was to a great extent arbitrary, 
and did not possess the advantage of either ornament. 
or utility, the use of capital letters is now very properly 
limited to the applications about to be mentioned. 
17 



258 APPENDIX. 

RULE I. 

The First Word of a Book, Tract, #c. 

The first word of every book, tract, essay, &c, and of 
their great divisions, — chapters, sections, paragraphs, 
and notes, — must commence with a capital letter. 

REMARKS. 

a. Numerous exemplifications of the rule will be found in the 
present or any other work. 

b. Phrases or clauses, when separately numbered, begin each with 
a capital letter; as, "The reproach of barbarism may be incurred 
in three different ways: 1. By the use of words entirely obsolete; 
2. By the use of words entirely new ; or, 3. By new formations and 
compositions from simple and primitive words in present use." 

RULE II. 

The First Word after a Full Point. 

The first word after a period, and after a note of 
interrogation or exclamation when grammatically equi- 
valent to a period, should begin with a capital ; as, — 

1. Let the tone of your conversation be invariably benevolent. Differ 
without asperity ; agree without dogmatism. Kind words cost no more thaD 
unkind ones. 

2. What is it that keeps men in continual discontent and agitation? It 
is, that they cannot make realities correspond with their conceptions. 

3. Fair, fair, shall be the flowers that spring over thy tomb, dear, gentle 
Elia! Sweet shall be the song — sweet as thine own — that sball lure the 
wanderer to the spot where thy urn receives the tears of the stranger. 

REMARKS. 

a. Some writers and printers always commence with a capital 
letter the word immediately following a colon ; but this should take 
place only when required by other rules. 

b. When the period is a mark for an abbreviated word or phrase 
which does not end a sentence, the following word is commenced, 
not with a capital, but with a small letter; as, "Franklin had the 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 259 

degree of LL.D. conferred on him by the University of St. Andrew's, 
Scotland." Here it -will be seen, that the initial of " conferred" is 
small. The word " Andrew's," indeed, though coming after an 
abbreviation, is put with a capital ; but this, of course, arises from 
the fact that " St. Andrew's " is a proper name. 

c. When two or more sentences, of an exclamatory or interroga- 
tive kind, are closely connected in sense and construction, all of 
them, except the first, begin with a small letter ; as, " How ugly 
a person appears, upon whose reputation some awkward aspersion 
hangs ! and how suddenly his countenance clears up with his cha- 
racter! " — " What child is there, who, in a toyshop, does not prefer 
the gaudiest toy, if all other circumstances of attraction be the 
same? or, rather, to what child are not this very glare and glitter 
the chief circumstances of attraction? and in what island of savages 
have our circumnavigators found the barbarian to differ in this 
respect from the child?" In the passages just cited, the words 
" and," " or," which follow the note of exclamation and of inter- 
rogation, are begun with small letters, because these marks are 
equivalent, not to full points, but to semicolons. 

RULE m. 

Appellations of God and Christ. 

Names of the Deity and of Jesus Christ must com- 
mence with a capital letter ; as, — 

1. Jehovah, Lord, God ; Creator, Father, Preserver, Governor ; the Eternal, 
the Almighty, the All-wise; the Supreme Being; the Holy Spirit. 

2. The Messiah, the Anointed; the Son, the Saviour, the Redeemer; the 
Holy One ; Prophet, Teacher, Master ; Judge of the world. 

REMARKS. 

a. Some of these and similar words are begun, sometimes with a 
capital, and sometimes with a small letter, according to the sense in 
which they are taken. Thus, God, with a large initial, is the name 
of the Supreme Being; god, with a small character, an appellation 
used occasionally of men, angels, and false divinities ; as, " The 
Lord is a great God above all gods." 

b. With initial capitals, Lord and King are applied to God and 
Christ; with a small I and h, the same words denote men having 
authority and power. Thus, in the Apocalypse, our Saviour is 



260 APPENDIX. 



called "Lord of lords, and King of kings; " and, in the Old 
ment, a great sovereign is styled a " king of kings." 

c. From the vagueness of the ideas represented by the word 
nature, it is difficult to lay down any precise rule as to the mode of 
writing or printing it. In general, it should begin with a small n ; 
as, "He looks through nature up to nature's God;" except when 
strongly personified, or when clearly used of the intelligent Principle 
of the universe. 

d. Providence, with an initial capital, denotes the infinitely good 
Being who provides for the wants of his creatures; but, when 
beginning with a small p, it means either divine superintendence or 
human foresight. So, Heaven, with a capital H, signifies God, the 
Sovereign of heaven, or of the celestial regions. 

e. The adjectives divine, heavenly, eternal, universal, providential, 
and others of a similar kind, when applied to God, his attributes, or 
his agency, are sometimes written initially with capitals; but, unless 
when particularly emphatic, small letters are preferable, because 
the names of the Deity occurring in the connection sufficiently indi- 
cate the Being referred to. 

f. As exceptions to Remark e, the epithets occurring in First 
Cause, Divine or Supreme Being, Almighty God, Infinite One, should 
begin with large letters, because universal custom favors this mode 
of writing. The adjective Most High or Highest should also appear 
with an initial capital, when the noun which it qualifies is not used. 

g. When the attributes of the Deity or of the Saviour are ex- 
pressed, not by adjectives, but, in the Hebrew style, by nouns, — as, 
Father of mercies, God of wisdom, Prince of peace, instead of the 
merciful Father, the wise God, the peaceful Prince, — they should 
begin, like the adjectives, with small letters, as here exemplified. 

h. The appellation Son of man, when applied to Christ, whether 
by way of eminence or of humility, is probably better printed, not 
" Son of Man " or " son of man," but as it appears in the common 
version of the Bible, and in the first line of this remark. 

i. The word Sjnrit, and the phrases Holy or Divine Spirit, Holy 
Ghost, Spirit of God, are usually capitalized, whether said of the 
Deity or of his gifts and influences. Some writers, however, restrict 
the capitals to these terms when they have a personal import, but 
use small letters when they signify merely divine inspiration or 
heavenly aid. As the mode of exhibiting these words is as much a 
matter of theology as of taste, authors should be particularly careful 
to write the initials as they wish them to be printed. 



CAJPITAL LETTERS. 261 



j. Pronouns referring to God and Christ should not begin with 
capitals, unless they are used emphatically without a noun. Hymns 
and prayers are often disfigured by the unnecessary use of these 
letters, as in the following lines : — 

These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good, 

Almighty! Thine this universal frame, 

Thus wondrous fair: Thyself how wondrous then! — 

which would lose none of their true grandeur, if more simply 
printed : — 

These are thy glorious works, Parent of good, 

Almighty ! thine this universal frame, 

Thus wondrous fair: thyself how wondrous then! 



RULE IV. 

Titles of Honor and Respect. 

Titles of honor and respect, either descriptive of per- 
sons in exalted stations or addressed to them, usually 
begin with capital letters ; as, — 

1. Her Majesty, His Honor, Your Royal Highness, Your Grace. 

2. My Lord, my Lady ; dear Sir, respected Madam or Friend. 

3. The President of the United States. 

4. His Excellency the Governor of Massachusetts. 

REMARKS. 

a. In the rules and reports of societies, institutions, &c, names 
indicating office should begin with capitals ; as, Chairman, President, 
Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, Committee, Directors, Board of 
Managers. So also, when used in a specific sense, the words 
Report, Society, Institution, Corporation, Constitution, Commonwealth, 
State, University, College, Academy, School, Congress, Parliament, 
Legislature, &c. In the plural number, or when used in a general 
sense, such words are properly put in small characters. 

b. The pope; his or her majesty ; king, queen; duke, duchess ; lord, 
lady ; sir, madam; president, governor, and words of a similar kind, 
should be written or printed with small initials, when they occur 
very frequently, or without any particular expression of honor. 
When prefixed to proper names, however, they are always begun 



262 APPENDIX. 

with capitals ; as, President Jefferson, Governor Winthrop, Professor 
Longfellow, Lord Brougham, Countess of Blessington, Queen Victoria, 
the Emperor Napoleon, Pope Pius IX. 

c. So, also, father, mother ; brother, sister ; uncle, aunt, &c, com- 
mence with capital letters when put before proper names ; as, Aunt 
Dorothy, Brother Gray. But the term father, when applied to any 
of the early orthodox writers of the Christian Church, is begun with 
a capital, whether it be or be not prefixed to a proper name; as, 
" Even the soundest of the Fathers held some opinions inconsistent 
with th8 doctrines of the gospel." 

RULE V. 

Names of Persons, Places, $c. 

All proper names, whether of animate or inanimate 
existences, begin with capitals ; as, — 

1. Jupiter, Juno ; Pompey, Penelope ; William, Sarah. 

2. America, Europe ; France, Spain, Great Britain. 

3. New York, Philadelphia ; London, Edinburgh, Broadway. 

4. The Atlantic, the Red Sea, Lake Erie, the Alps. 

5. January, Monday, Christmas, Good Friday, Easter. 

REMARKS. 

a. When the word devil is used of Satan, it may begin with a 
capital; as, the Devil and his angels. But when employed of demo- 
niacal agents or of wicked men, whether in the singular or the 
plural number, it commences with a small letter. 

b. The words heaven, hell , paradise , the celestial and the infernal 
regions, representing either states of mind or places of reward and 
punishment, usually begin with small letters ; but Elysium, Tartarus, 
and Pandemonium, with capitals. 

c. Appellatives, merely expletory, coming before proper names, 
are begun with small letters ; but, when put immediately after them, 
they are distinguished by capitals ; as, the river Thames, the city of 
London ; London City, the Thames River. 

d. When North, South, East, West, &c, denote certain countries 
of which we are accustomed to speak, or the people who reside in 
certain parts of the globe or in districts of our own land, they are 
written or printed with initial capitals ; as, " This man's accent 
shows that he belongs to the South." But, when they refer to 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 2G3 

places or things as being more to the north, south, &c, than othei's, 
these words are begun with small letters ; as, " London is situated 
east of Windsor." 

e. Sunday, as one of the days of the week, always has an initial 
capital; while, on the contrary, sabbath, or sabbath-day, is perhaps 
more frequently written and printed with a small s than with a 
large one. The initials in Lord's Day, New Year's Bay, &c, are 
usually capitalized. 

EULE VI. 

Nouns and Adjectives derived from Proper Names. 

Gentile nouns, adjectives derived from gentile nouns, 
and nouns or adjectives formed from proper names, 
begin with capitals ; as, — 

1. A Hebrew, a Greek, a Roman, a German, a Spaniard, a Frenchman 

2. Hebrew, Grecian, Roman, Italian, French, Spanish, American. 

3. A Christian, a Brahmin, a Mahometan ; Augustan, Elizabethan. 

REMARKS. 

a. Names of sectaries, whether formed from proper nouns or other 
wise, should begin with capitals ; as, " Good men are found among 
Christian denominations of the most opposite doctrines, — among Ro 
man Catholics and Protestants, Athanasians and Arians, Trinitarians 
and Unitarians, Lutherans, Calvinists, Ai-minians, and Universalists." 
So, also, when used adjectively; as, the Wesleyan doctrines; Papal, 
Protestant, and Episcopal ceremonies. 

b. A few adjectives and common nouns, derived from proper 
names, are usually printed with small initials ; as, godlike, stentorian, 
hermetical, hymeneal, prussic ; epicure, epicurism ; ■philippic, simony, 
jalap, damask, cashmere (shawl), china (ware), guinea (a coin), turkey 
(a fowl), champagne (wine). These and similar words are so written, 
because usually little or no reference is made to the proper names 
from which they were derived. 

c. For the same reason, the verbs to hector, to philippize, to romance, 
to galvanize, to japan, should be written with small letters. But, on 
account of their more obvious allusion to the proper names whence 
they have been taken, Judaize and Christianize are better written or 
printed with initial capitals. The compounds unchristian, antichHs- 
tian, &c, are, however, done with small characters. 



264 APPENDIX. 

RULE VII. 

Words of Primary Importance. 

Words of primary importance, especially if they 
indicate some great event, or remarkable change in 
religion or government, are commenced with capital 
letters ; as, - — 

1. The Reformation, effected mainly by Luther, is one of the most won- 
derful e rents in modern times. 

2. Glorious New England! around thy hills and mountains cling, like 
gathering mists, the mighty memories of the Revolution. 

REMARKS. 

a. The use of capitals in important words and phrases seems to 
be, in some measure, a matter of mere taste or caprice. Channing 
not unfrequently represents the greatest of his great ideas by words 
having initial capitals; Carlyle, and other imitators of German 
thought and expression, employ them superabundantly, and with 
little discrimination ; while others are particularly careful that the 
uniformity which is so desirable in a printed page be marred as little 
as possible by the practice referred to. 

b. Every noun or leading word in the titles of books and other 
publications must begin, wherever it occurs, with a capital letter; 
as, " Gray's ' Elegy in a Country Churchyard ' is perhaps the finest 
poem of the kind in the English or any other language." 

c. Terms denoting the records of the Jewish and Christian reve- 
lations are distinguished by initial capitals; as, the Scriptures, the 
Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, the Old and the New Testament. But 
the phrase word of God, when employed in this sense, is begun with a 
small letter; while the term Word, or " Logos," as used by St. John 
in the introduction to his Gospel, and so much discussed by divines, 
is generally written and printed with a capital. 

d. The word gospel has a small letter for its initial when it means 
the religion of Jesus, but a capital when it denotes one of the four 
Gospels; as, the Gospel of Matthew. So, also, the term revelation, 
when denoting the divine instructions contained in the Bible, begins 
with a small letter ; but, used of the Apocalypse, or Revelation of St. 
John, it must be distinguished with a capital. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 2G5 

e. The word church, when used by itself or in a gereral sense, 
should begin with a small letter; but, when connected with an 
adjective indicating a particular body of Christians, it should com 
mence with a capital; as, the Protestant Church. 

f. So, also, the term catholic, whether as a noun or an adjective, 
should be written and printed with a small c, when it is used of all 
Christians, or of men of liberal and tolerant principles; but with a 
capital when significant merely of the Romish community. 

g. For the sake of uniformity, the names Gentile, Heathen, and 
Pagan, so often occurring in connection with Jew, should, when 
used as nouns, begin with capitals; but, when employed adjectively, 
with small letters. The words orthodoxy, orthodox ; heterodoxy, hetero- 
dox; heresy, heretic, heretical; mysticism, mystic, mystical; atheism, 
atheist, atheistic ; pantheism, pantheist, pantheistic ; deism, deist, deistical; 
rationalism, rationalist, rationalistic ; supernaturalism, supernaturalist ; 
transcendentalism, transcendentalist, transcendental; spiritualism, spi- 
ritualist, are usually put with small characters. The term Orthodox, 
however, when used of any particular section of the orthodox body 
of Christians, should begin with a capital letter; as, the Ordwdox 
Qmgregationalists. — See p. 263, Remark a. 

h. Designations of political parties should commence each with 
a capital letter; as, Whig, Tory, Federalist, Democrat, Republican, 
Conservative, Radical, Free Soiler. 

i. In advertisements, handbills, and cards, the principal words — 
such as the names of the arts and sciences, and nouns occurring in 
a list of articles — are properly begun with capitals. 

RULE VHI. 
The Pronoun I, and the Interjection O. 

The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should inva- 
riably be written or printed in capitals ; as, — 

"With three steps I compass thy grave, thou who wast so great before! 
REMARKS. 

a. The interjection oh should never, as is sometimes done, be put 
with an initial capital, except at the beginning of a sentence, or of a 
line in verse. 

b. For the modes of using the two words and oh, see page 160, 
Remark c 



266 APPENDIX. 

RULE IX. 

Commencement of Lines in Verse. 

The first word of every line in poetry is begun with 
a capital letter ; as, — 

No eye beheld when William plunged 

Young Edmund in the stream; 
No human ear but William's heard 

Young Edmund's drowning scream. 

REMARKS. 

a. The initial letter in the first word of a poetical quotation, 
though not beginning a line, should be capitalized ; as, " One of the 
most illustrious names in the literary annals of Europe is that of 

Spenser, — 

' That gentle bard, 
Chosen by the Muses for their page of state.' " 

b. In humorous verse, when a portion of a word is put at the end 
of one line, and the other portion at the beginning of the next, the 
latter should be put with a small initial ; as, — 

Paganini, Paganini! 
Never was there such a geni- 
us before as Paganini. 

RULE X. 

Prosopopoeia, or Personification. 

Nouns that represent inanimate beings as persons 
should begin with capitals ; as, — 

Better to sit in Freedom's hall, 
With a cold, damp floor, and a mouldering wall, 
Than to bend the neck or to bow the knee 
In the proudest palace of Slavery. 

REMARKS. 

a. According to this rule, all such words as the Muses, the Graces, 
the Furies, the Fates, should be distinguished by capitals. When 
" the °races " is used of certain moral affections, a common g is 
properly used. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 267 

b. So, also, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter ; the Sun, the Earth, 
the Moon, and the Stars, should each begin with a capital when they 
are personified, but with a small letter when they are used in ordi- 
nary composition. In works on astronomy, it is better to capitalize 
them. 

c. The rule should be applied with some discrimination. It is 
only when the figure prosopopoeia is uncommonly vivid that the noun 
should have its initial with a capital letter ; there being a tendency, 
even in the most inanimate compositions, to impart a certain degree 
of life and energy to the representatives of our thoughts. But, 
though in numberless instances it would be improper to capitalize 
such words, the more glowing personifications of the poet and the 
orator ought unquestionably to be so distinguished. 

EULE XL 

Quotations, Examples, 8;c. 

The first word of every quotation, example, precept, 
or question, introduced in a direct form, must begin 
with a capital letter ; as, — 

1. Bushnell well remarks, " Hitherto, the love of passion has been the 
central fire of the world's literature." 

2. These two questions, "What are we? " and "Whither do we tend? " 
will at times press painfully upon thoughtful minds. 

REMARKS. 

a. When a quotation is introduced by the conjunction that, or is 
brought in obliquely or indirectly, a small letter is preferable; as, 
" It is well said by a celebrated writer, that, ' precious as thought is, 
the love of truth is still more precious.' " — " Happy those who, 
' dying, leave no line they wish to blot ' ! " — " This great patriot 
bequeathed to his heirs the sword which he had worn in the war for 
liberty, and charged them ' never to take it from the scabbard but in 
self-defence, or in defence of their country and her freedom.' " 

b. Examples, consisting of mere words or phrases, may have 
small letters for their initials, when they do not commence new lines, 
or are not formally introduced with the words " as follows," or with 
a similar expression. Numerous illustrations of this remark may be 
seen in pages 211-20. 



268 



APPENDIX. 



RULE XII. 

Capitals used instead of Figures. 

Numbers are sometimes written or printed wholly 
in capitals, as representative characters. Thus, — 

I. is used instead of one, or first; IV. for four, or fourth; XI. for eleven, 
or eleventh; XX. for twenty, or twentieth; XL. for forty, or fortieth; &c. 

4 REMARKS. 

a. Some writers refer to passages in books by putting the num- 
bers of the volume, part, chapter, &c, in capital letters, and also by 
capitalizing the first letter in the name of the division specified ; as, 
" Campbell on the Four Gospels, Vol. I. Diss. V. Part IV. Sect. II. 
Page 218." But, when such references are numerous, small letters 
are preferable, because they have a neater appearance ; as, " Camp- 
bell on the Four Gospels, vol. i. diss. v. part iv. sect. ii. page [or p.] 
218." 

b. For the punctuation, see pp. 150-1, Rule V. and Remarks. 



RULE XIII. 

Titlepages, Inscriptions, fyc. 

Titlepages of books, and heads of chapters, sections, 
articles, &c, are, with some few exceptions, put entirely 
in capitals. Unless very long, dedications of printed 
works, and inscriptions on monuments, are commonly 
distinguished in the same manner. 

REMARKS. 

a. The first word in a book or chapter is usually put in small 
capitals, with the exception of the initial letter, which should have 
a common-size capital. 

b. Capitals or small capitals are also used, either singly or other- 
wise, as abbreviations of titles and other words, and as representative 
signs, particularly in works of art and science, such as chemistry, 
mechanics, arithmetic, grammar, music, &c. Many of these will be 
exhibited in the article beginning on page 272. 



ITALIC CHARACTERS. 269 

In concluding these rules and remarks on the use 
of capitals, we would suggest that authors either note 
accurately and consistently the words which they mean 
to be so distinguished, or allow the printer to exercise 
his own taste and judgment. By this means, not only 
would a great loss of time be saved to the workman, 
but the work itself would have a neater and more 
uniform appearance. 

In manuscript, words or sentences meant to be 
printed in CAPITALS are distinguished by having 
three lines drawn under them ; in small capitals, 
by two lines ; and in Italics, by one. 



II. — ITALIC CHARACTERS. 



Characters called Italics, and printed in this form, 
are used chiefly to point out emphatical expressions, or 
to distinguish foreign words and phrases. In the com- 
mon version of the Scriptures, however, words are so 
printed to show that they have nothing corresponding 
to them in the original Hebrew or Greek, but were 
inserted by the translators to complete or explain the 
sense. 

It is quite impracticable to lay down definite and 
unvarying rules in respect to all the circumstances 
under which it is proper to use Italic letters. Their 
employment was at one time exceedingly common ; all 
proper names, and almost all words of more than ordi- 
nary significance, having been written or printed in this 



270 APPENDIX. 

manner. A sparing use of Italics is, however, strongly 
recommended to authors and typographers ; for it is 
obvious, that, as there are in composition innumerable 
shades and degrees of emphasis, a prodigal introduc- 
tion of words of a sloping character would tend rather 
to confound the sense and perplex the reader, than to 
elucidate the meaning, or to assist in discriminating 
the relative importance which should be attached to 
different sentiments. 

In all works, however, which treat of matters relat- 
ing to science, art, or language, where it is necessary 
to adduce words and phrases in illustration of certain 
principles, or to employ them in technical senses, the 
use of Italic characters is indispensable. In the pre- 
sent treatise, it will be seen that they are freely and 
unavoidably used. 



HI. — TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS. 



Captions and Subheads are words or expressions 
that stand above chapters, sections, and paragraphs, 
for the purpose of indicating their contents. Side- 
heads are of a similar nature, but put in the first line 
of the paragraph or paragraphs to which they refer. 
Running Titles — or, as they are sometimes called, 
headlines — are such words or phrases as are placed at 
the top of the page. All these are printed usually in 
capital or small-capital letters ; sometimes, especially 
in magazines, in Italics. 



TERMS RELATING TO BOOKS. 271 

Signatures are the letters of the alphabet, used by 
English printers in the foot-margin of certain pages, 
as a guide to direct the bookbinder in arranging and 
folding the sheets. The letter B is put at the bottom 
of the first sheet or half-sheet which comes immediately 
after the titlepage, preface, and contents ; C, at that 
of the second ; and so on throughout the alphabet, with 
the exception of J, V, and W. If the number of pages 
require more signatures than the alphabet will indicate, 
the letters are doubled or trebled, or a numeral is 
prefixed to them ; as, A A, B b ; 2 A, 2 B ; 3 A, &c. 
Figures, or numeral characters (1, 1* ; 2, 2* ; &c), 
being more convenient than letters, are used for the 
same purpose by American printers. But in catalogues, 
and other publications in which figures often occur, 
capitals or small capitals are, for distinction's sake, 
preferable. 



Names of Various Sizes of Books. — Folio 
denotes a sheet of paper folded into two leaves, making 
four pages ; quarto, or, as abbreviated, 4to or 4°, is a 
sheet divided into four leaves, or eight pages ; octavo, 
8vo or 8°, a sheet into eight leaves, or sixteen pages ; 
duodecimo, 12mo or 12°, a sheet into twelve leaves, or 
twenty-four pages. So, also, sixteens, 16mo or 16°; 
eighteens, 18mo or 18° ; twenty-fours, 24mo or 24° ; 
thirty-twos, 32mo or 32° ; forty-eights, 48mo or 48° ; 
sixty-fours, 64mo or 64°, are the several designations 
of sheets when folded into sixteen, eighteen, twenty- 
four, thirty-two, forty-eight, and sixty-four leaves ; 
making each twice the number of pages. 



272 



APPENDIX. 



IV.- ABBREVIATIONS AND REPRESENTATIVE 
LETTERS. 



The following is perhaps the largest list of miscella- 
neous abbreviations that has yet been published ; but its 
chief value consists in affording to writers and printers 
an opportunity of selecting those modes of abbreviating 
words which seem best fitted for the purposes they 
may have in view. To further this object, the com- 
piler has presented the various forms in which any 
given word or phrase has been employed, where more 
than one has been in use ; appending a dagger ( f ) to 
such as appear unsuitable, either in consequence of 
their being already employed for other words, because 
they are less intelligible than they should be, or have 
but slight authority for their adoption. But the mark 
is not intended to imply, that these should never be 
preferred ; for cases will arise, where, from the connec- 
tion or the narrowness of the printed line, it may be 
desirable to use them. To those abbreviations, how- 
ever, which are regarded as unfit to appear under any 
circumstances, but which are used by some writers, he 
has put a double dagger ( I ). 

It need scarcely be said, that only a few of the 
abbreviations here exhibited should appear in ordinary 
composition. But they are very serviceable in cata- 
logues, directories, tabular lists of articles, and family 
registers ; and in works on grammar, lexicography, 



ABBKEVIATIONS. 273 

arithmetic, geography, &c. ; where certain terms often 
occur, and their full spelling would impede the course 
of a reader, or swell the size of a book. There are 
also some words and phrases, which, wherever they 
may occur, whether in works relating to science and 
art or to general literature, are commonly written as 
abbreviations. These are either mostly a few Latin 
words, which, without being Anglicized, are found use- 
ful in supplying the place of circumlocutions in the 
language ; as, fyc, instead of " and other persons " or 
" things : " or they are titles prefixed to proper names ; 
as, " Mr. Richardson, Dr. Finlay, Capt. Jameson," &c. : 
or are terms made use of in reference to passages in 
books ; as, " See pp. 500, seq. ; and comp. sect. 6." 

When referring, in notes or at the beginning or end 
of extracts, to works that are well known, it is usual 
to abbreviate the longer words in their titles ; as, 
" Gibbon's Hist, of the Dec. and Fall of the Rom. , 
Emp., vol. ii. p. 288." In the list will be found abbre- 
viations of only some American and British periodicals ; 
for it would be a vain attempt to give more than a few 
specimens of the abbreviations adopted in the names 
of such publications, and altogether impossible to ex- 
hibit those used in the names of books in general. 
Indeed, such abbreviations are quite too much in 
vogue ; and it is recommended, that, in all cases where 
the common reader is supposed to be unacquainted 
with the works to which reference is made, the titles 
be printed in full, or at least such portions as will 
clearly indicate what the writer intends. In treatises, 
however, addressed merely to the learned professions, 
it may be sufficient generally to indicate authorities by. 

18 



274 



APPENDIX. 



the first letter or letters in each word. Copious lists 
of those relating to botany, law, and organic remains, 
will be found in Savage's " Dictionary of the Art of 
Printing," pp. 59-81, 430-37, and 548. 

When the names of the books of Scripture are spe- 
cified with chapter and verse, they should, except those 
of but one syllable, be given in their abbreviated forms ; 
as, " Gen. xlix. 26. Matt. vii. 28." When spoken of 
without reference to any particular passage, the names 
should be spelled out ; as, " The Gospel of Matthew is 
the first book in the New Testament." 

The more common baptismal names, if put in lists 
where the saving of room is an object, should be printed 
with such portions as will lead to a true knowledge of 
them. They may all, indeed, be severally abbreviated 
with only the initial letter, when the persons whom 
they represent are so well known that no mistake can 
readily take place, or when it is deemed of little 
importance whether they be known or not. But in 
books in which elegance of composition, intelligibility 
of sense, or uniformity of printing, is desirable, the 
names of persons, at least those by which they are 
commonly designated, ought to appear in full. Names 
of ladies should, if possible, be so given. 

Titles of eminent men, when put immediately after 
their names, are almost universally abbreviated; as, 
" Walter Kinderhook, D.D." But, when the titles are 
predicated of persons, they are better written in full ; 
as, " Th3 Eev. Joshua Rankin is a Doctor of Divinity ; 
and Matthew Finlayson, Bachelor of Arts." 

To preclude mistakes, the names of cities, towns, and 
other places, should not, if avoidable, be abbreviated 



ABBREVIATIONS. 275 

The names of states and kingdoms should also be 
written or printed in full, unless they occur in tabular 
matter or in geographical books where the abbrevia- 
tions have been previously explained ; or unless they 
are placed immediately after the names of cities, &c. ; 
as, " There being a Boston in England as well as in 
Massachusetts, besides several others in the United 
States, be careful that, in addressing any letter to a 
place bearing that name, you state its proper destina- 
tion, and say either ' Boston, Eng. ;' ' Boston, Mass. ;' 
1 Boston, N.Y.;' or ' Boston, 0. ; ' as the case may 
require." 

With the exception of May, June, and July, and per- 
haps also March and April, the names of the months 
should be abbreviated when they stand in connection 
with the day of the month ; as, " Dec. 25, 1854." In 
all other instances, they should, if possible, be spelled 
out ; as, " Robert Burns was born in the month of 
January, 1759." 

All words which, when abbreviated, are shortened 
only by one letter, should be written or printed in full. 
Jb. for " Job," Jno. for " John," and dy. for " day," are, 
obviously, improper and unnecessary. 

The usual abbreviations made use of in works on 
chemistry and in medical prescriptions, &c, will be 
found inserted in the following table ; but a more com- 
plete list appears in Savage's " Dictionary of Printing," 
pp. 237-44, 481-84. 

Some abbreviations are used only in the middle of 
sentences, and begun with small characters ; others, as 
the initials of titles, are always printed in capitals; 
while others, again, appear sometimes with initial capi- 



276 APPENDIX. 

tals, and sometimes with initial small letters. When 
there are two modes of printing them, both will be 
found exhibited in the table, that the eye may be accus- 
tomed to both forms ; but the mode of using them will 
depend on the principles laid down in the article on 
capitals, pp. 257-68. 

To an author who finds it necessary to adopt abbre- 
viations not in common use, it is recommended that he 
present, at the beginning of his treatise, a list of all 
that may be required for his purpose, with the requi- 
site explanations ; and that, if at all practicable, he 
preserve the same forms throughout the work. 

Contractions formed by the insertion of apostro- 
phes — as, SupH for " Superintendent," or Veg'tds for 
" Vegetables " — are altogether excluded from the fol- 
lowing list, because deemed fit to be used only in cases 
of extreme necessity. So, also, those contractions which 
sometimes appear at the foot of advertisements, but 
which are not meant to be read by the public ; as, 
"isF&Tu&osMWThSattf;" a direction which would 
have a more common-sense-like appearance, if it stood 
thus : " i.F.&Tu. & o.M.W.Th.S. t.f. ; " and be better 
adapted to express the meaning, — " To be inserted 
inside on Friday and Tuesday, and outside on Monday, 
Wednesday, Thursday, and Saturday, till forbidden." 

As the exhibiting of Latin abbreviations, unless used 
in English composition, falls not within the scope of 
the present work, it will be sufficient merely to refer 
to the Latin dictionaries for those pertaining to the 
classics ; and to Savage's book, already mentioned, 
pp. 204 and 689-700, for such as are used in Domes- 
day-Book and in the old Public Records. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



277 



ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS. 



A. — Five hundred (one). 

A. — Five thousand {(inc.). 

A. — Augustus ; Aulus. 

A. — Accepted ; Answer. 

A.f or a.f — Adjective. 

A. or a. — Afternoon. 

A.t a.f or ac. — Acre, acres. 

A. A. P. S. — American Associa- 
tion for the Promotion of Sci- 
ence. 

A. A. S. — Academics Americanos 
Secius, Fellow of the American 
Academy (of Arts and Sci- 
ences). 

A.A.S.S. — Americanai Antiqua- 
rianai Societatis Socius, Member 
of the American Antiquarian 
Society. 

A.B. — Artium Baccalaureus, Ba- 
chelor of Arts. 

Ab. or ab. — About. 

Abbr. or abbr. — .Abbreviated. 

A.B.C.F.M. — American Board 
of Commissioners for Foreign 
Missions. 

Abl. or abl. ; Ab.f or ab.f — Ab- 
lative (case). 

Abp. or Archb.f — Archbishop. 

Absol. or absol. — Absolute. 

A. C. — Ante Christum, before 
Christ. 

A.C. — Archchancellor. 

Ac. or ac. — Acre, acres. 

Ace. or ace. ; Ac.f or ac.f — Ac- 
cusative (case). 

Acct. or acct. — Account. 

A.C.S. — American Colonization 
Society. 



A.D. — Anno Domini, in the year 

of our Lord ; Archduke. 
Ad lib. or ad lib. — Ad libitum, 

at pleasure. 
Adj. or adj. — Adjective. 
Adjt. — Adjutant. 
Adjt.-Gen. — Adjutant-General. 
Adm. or Adml.f — Admiral, Ad- 
miralty. 
Adm. Co. — Admiralty Court. 
Admr. — Administrator. 
Admx. — Administratrix. 
Ad v. or ad v. — Ad valorem, at 

the value. 
Adv. — Advent; Advocate. 
Adv. or adv. — Adverb. 
Mt. or set. ; iE.f or 38. t —jElatis, 

of age, aged. 
A. & F. B. S. — American and 

Foreign Bible Society. 
A.F.f or A. fir. — Firkin of ale. 
Af. — Africa. 
Ag. — Argentum ( Silver). 
Agric. — Agriculture. 
Agt. — Agent. 
A.H. — Anno Hegira, in the year 

of the Hegira. 
A. H. M. S. — American Home 

Missionary Society. 
Al. — Aluminum. 
Ala. or Al.f — Alabama. 
Aid. — Alderman or Aldermen. 
Alex. — Alexander. 
Alt. or alt. — Altitude. 
A.M. — Anno mundi, in the year 

of the world. 
A.M. — Artium Magister, Master 

of Arts. 



278 



APPENDIX. 



A.M., a.m. or a.m. — Ante meri- 
diem, before noon, morning. 

Am.f or Amer. — America. 

Am. or Amer.f — American. 

Am. Alma. — American Alma- 
nac. 

Am. Inst, of Instruc. — American 
Institute of Instruction. 

Am. Quar. Obs. — American 
Quarterly Observer. 

Am. Quar. Keg. — American 
Quarterly Register. 

Am. Quar. Rev. — American 
Quarterly Review. 

Amb. — Ambassador. [tion. 

AMM. — Amalgama, amalgama- 

Amst. — Amsterdam. 

An. — Anno, in the year. 

An. A. C. — Anno ante Christum, 
*n the year before Christ. 

Anal. — Analysis. [zine. 

Anal. Mag. — Analectic Maga- 

Anat. — Anatomy. 

Anc. or anc— Ancient, anciently. 

And. — Andrew. 

Ang.-Sax. — Anglo-Saxon. 

Ann. Reg. — Annual Register. 

Anom. or anom. — Anomalous. 

Anon, or An.f — Anonymous. 

Ans. — Answer. 

Ant. — Antiquities. 

Anth. — Anthony. 

Antw. — Antwerp. 

Aor. or aor. — Aorist. 

A, . S . S . — Americance Orienta- 
lis Societatis Socius, Member 
of the American Oriental So- 
ciety. 

Ap. — Apostle; Appius. 

ap.f — Apud, in the writings of; 
as quoted by. 

Ap.f Apr or Apl.f — April. 



A.P.G. or Ast. P.G.f— Professor 
of Astronomy in Gresham Col- 
lege. 

Apo. or apo. — Apogee. 

Apoc. — Apocalypse. 

A.R. — Anna Regina, Queen 
Anne. 

A.R. — Anno regni, in the year 
of the reign. 

Ar. or ar. ; Arr.f or arr.f — Ar- 
rived, arrivals. 

Arab., Ara.f or Ar.f — Arabic. 

Arch. — Archibald. 

Arch. — Architecture. 

Archb.f — Archbishop. 

Arith. — Arithmetic. 

Ark. — Arkansas. 

Arm. — Armoric; Armenian. 

A. R. R. — Anno regni regis, in 
the year of the reign of the 
king. 

Arrond. or arrond. — Arrondisse- 
ment. 

A. R. S . S . — Antiquariorum Regim 
Societatis Socius, Fellow of the 
Royal Society of Antiquaries. 

Art. or art. — Article. 

As. — Arsenic. 

As.f — Asia. 

A. S. A. — American Statistical 
Association. 

A. S. S. U. — American Sunday 
School Union. 

Ass.J Asst.f or Assist. Sec. — As- 
sistant Secretary. 

Astrol. — Astrology. 

Astron. — Astronomy. 

A.T. — Archtreasurer. 

A.T.S. — American Temperance 
Society. 

A. T. S. — American Tract So- 
ciety. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



279 



Ait — Attic. 

Atty. or Att.f — Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General. 

Attys. — Attorneys. 

Au. — Aunes, French ells. 

Au. — Aurum (Gold). 

A. U. A. — American Unitarian 
Association. 

Aub. Theol. Sern. — Auburn 
Theological Seminary. 

A.U.C. — Anno urbis conditce, in 
the year after the building of 
the city (Eome). 

Aug. — August; Augustus. 

Aust. or Austr.f — Austria, Aus- 
trian. 

Austral. — Australasia. 

Auth. Ver. — Authorized Ver- 
sion (of the Bible). 

Av. or av.f — Average; avenue. 

Avoir, or av.f — Avoirdupois. 

B. — Three hundred (anc). 
B. — Three thousand (anc). 
B. — Basso, bass. 

B. — Boron. 

B. or b. ; Bk.f or bk.f — Book. 

B. or b. — Bay; born. 

B.A. — Bachelor of Arts. 

B.A. — British America. 

Ba. — Barium. 

Bail, or bail. — Bailiwick. 

Bal. — Balance. [zine. 

Bank. Mag. — Banker's Maga- 

Bar. — Baruch. 

Bar. or bar. — Barleycorn. 

Bar.f bbl.J or bl. — Barrel. 

Bart, or Bt.f — Baronet. 

B.C. — Before Christ. 

B.C.L. — Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B.D. — Baccalaureus Divinitaiis, 

Bachelor of Divinity. 
Bd. or bd. — Bound 



Bds. or bds. — Boards (bound in). 
Benj. or Ben.f — Benjamin. 
Berks. — Berkshire. 
B. & L. D. — Duke of Brunswick 

and Liineburg. 
B. F. or B. far. — Firkin of beer. 
Bi. — Bismuth. 

Bib. Sac. — Bibliotheca Sacra. 
Bk. — Bank. 
Bk.f or bk.f — Book. 
B.LL. — Baccalaureus Legum, 

Bachelor of Laws. 
Bl. or bl. — Barrel. frels. 

Bis. or bis. ; Bbl. or bbl. — Bar- 
Blackw. Mag. — Blackwood's 

Magazine. 
B. M. — Baccalaureus Medicirwe, 

Bachelor of Medicine. 
B.M. — British Mail. 
B.M. — British Museum. 
Bor. or bor. — Borough. 
Bos. — Boston. 
Bot. — Botany. 
Bp. — Bishop. 
B.R. — Banco Regis, or Regimes, 

the King's or Queen's Bench. 
Br. — Bromine. 
Br. or br. — Brig. 
Br. — Brother. Brs. — Brothers. 
Braz. — Brazil. 
Brig. — Brigade; Brigadier. 
Brig.-Gen. — Brigadier-General. 
Brit, or Br.f — British. 
Brit. Alma. — British Almanac. 
Brit. Crit. — British Critic. 
Brit. Mus. — British Museum. 
Brit. Quar. Rev. — British Quar- 
terly Review. 
Brit, and For. Rev. — British and 

Foreign Review. 
Bro.— Brother. Bros.— Brothers. 
Br. Univ. — Brown University. 



280 



APPENDIX. 



Bras. — Brussels. 

Brux. — Bruxelles. 

Bt.f — Baronet. 

Bu. or bu. ; Bush.f or bush.f — 

Bushel, bushels. 
Bucks. — Buckinghamshire. 

B. V. — Beata Virgo, Blessed Vir- 
gin. 

B.V. — Bene vale, farewell. 

C. — Caesar ; Caius. 
C. — Carbon. 

C. — A hundred ; a century. 

C. — A hundred thousand (anc). 

CC. — Two hundred. 

CCC. — Three hundred. 

CCCC.f or CD.— Four hundred. 

C. or c. — Cape. 

C. or c. — Centum, a hundred. 

C. or c. — Cent, cents. 

C. or c. — Centime, centimes. 

C. or c. — Coomb, coombs. 

C.f or c.f; Ch.J or ch.J; Chap. 

or chap. — Chapter, chapters. 
C.f or c.f ; Cor. or cor. — Corner. 
CJ or c.f ; Cub. or cub.^-Cubic. 
c. — Childless. 
Ca. — Calcium. 
Cses. Aug. — Caesar Augustus. 
cast, par.' — Cceteris paribus, other 

things being equal. 
Cal. — Calendce, the Calends. 
Cal. — California. 
Cam. — Cambridge. 
Can. — Canada. 
Can. or can. — Canton (a portion 

of territory). 
Cant. — Canticles. 
Cap. or cap. — Capital. 
Caps. — Capitals. 
Cap. or cap. — Caput, capitulum, 

chapter. 
Capt. — Captain. 



Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General. 

Car. — Carpentry. 

Car. or car. — Carat or carats. 

C.A.S. — Connecticuttensis Aca- 
demiai Socius, Fellow of the 
Connecticut Academy. 

Cash. — Cashier. 

Cath. — Catherine ; Catholic. 

C.B. — Cape Breton. 

C.B. — Companion of the Bath. 

C. C. — Caius CoUege ; County 
Commissioner ; County Court. 

C.C.J — Account Current. 

CCC — Corpus Christi College. 

CCIOO. — Ten thousand. 

CCCIOOO. — A hundred thou- 
sand. 

C. C P. — Court of Common 
Pleas. 

CD. — Four hundred. 
Cd. — Cadmium. 

CE. — Canada East. 
CE. — Civil Engineer. 
Ce. — Cerium. 

Cel. or Celt.f — Celtic. 

Cen. — Century. 

Cent. — Centum, a hundred. 

Cf. or cf. — Confer, compare. 

C.H. — Court-house. 

Ch. — China. 

Ch.J or ch.J — Chapter, chapters. 

Ch. or ch. — Chain, chains. 

Ch. or ch. — Child or children. 

Ch. or C.f — Church. 

Ch. Ch.f or C. Ch. — Christ 

Church. 
Ch.t or Chal. — Chaldee. 
Ch-t or ch.t; Chal. or chal. — 

Chaldron or chaldrons. 
Chanc. — Chancellor. [ters. 

Chap, or chap. — Chapter, chap- 
Chas. — Charles. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



281 



Chem. - - Chemistry. [ner. 

Chris. Ex. — Christian Exarni- 
Chris. Month. Spec. — Christian 

Monthly Spectator. 
Chris. Quar. Spec. — Christian 

Quarterly Spectator. 
Chris. Rev. — Christian Review. 
Chron. — Chronicles. 
Chron. — Chronology. 
Chs. — Churches. [sand. 

CIO. (contracted, M.). — A thou- 
Cic. — Cicero. 
Cixc. — Circle or circles. 
Cit. — Citizen. 
C.J. — Chief Justice. 
C.J.C. — Caius Julius Cassar. 
CI. — Chlorine. 
CI. — Claudius ; Clergyman. 
Cl.f or Clk. — Clerk. 
CI. Dom. Com. — Clerk of the 

House of Commons. 
Cld. or eld. — Cleared. 
CM. — Nine hundred. 
Cn. — Cnaius. 
Co. — Company; Cobalt. 
Co. or co. ; Cy.f or cy.-j— County. 
Coch. — Cochleare, a spoonful. 
Col. — Colonel ; Colossians. 
Col. — Column. 
Cold.f or cold.f — Colored. 
Coll. — Collector. 
Coll. — Collega, Colleague. 
Coll. — Collegium, College. 
Com. — Commerce ; Committee ; 

Commentary ; Commissioner ; 

Commodore. 
Com. or com. — Commune. 
Comdg. — Commanding. 
Com. Arr. — Committee of Ar- 
rangements. 
Comp. or comp. — Compare; 

compound. 



! Compar. or compar. ; Comp.f or 
comp.f — Comparative. 

Com. Ver. — Common Version 
(of the Bible). 

Con.f or con.f ; Conj. or conj. — 
Conjunction. 

Con. or con. — Connective. 

Con. — Contra, against, in oppo- 
sition. 

Con. Cr. or C.C.f — Contra cre- 
dit. 

Conch. — Conchology. 

Cong, or C. — Congress. 

Cong. — Congius, a gallon. 

Conj. or conj. — Conjunction. 

Conn, or Con.f — Connecticut. 

Const, or Cons.f — Constable; 
Constitution. 

Contr. or contr. — Contraction. 

Cop. — Coptic. 

Cor. — Corinthians. 

Cor. or cor. — Corner. 

Corn. — Cornish. 

Corol. — Corollary. 

Cor. Sec. or Secy.f — Corre- 
sponding Secretary. 

C.P. — Common Pleas. 

C.P. — Court of Probate. 

C. P. S. — Gustos Privati Sigilh, 
Keeper of the Privy Seal. 

CR. — Carolus Rex, KingCharles. 

CR. — Custos Boiulorum, Keeper 
of the Rolls. 

C. R. P. — Calendarium Rotulo- 
rum Patentium, Calendar of 
the Patent Rolls. 

Cr. — Chromium. 

Cr. — Creditor ; credit. 

Crim. Con. — Criminal conver- 
sation. 

Crit. — Criterion, criteria. 

Crit. Rev. — Critical Review. 



282 



APPENDIX. 



C.S. — Court of Sessions. 

C.S. — Gustos Sigilli, Keeper of 
the Seal. 

Ct. — Count. 

Ct.f or Conn. — Connecticut. 

Ct. cr ct. — Cent ; Court. 

Cts. or cts. — Cents. 

Cu. — Cuprum ( Copper). 

Cub. or cub. — Cubic. 

curt, or cur.t — Current. 

C.W. — Canada West. 

Cwt. or cwt. — Hundred- weight. 

Cy.f or cy.f — County. 

Cyclo. — Cyclopedia. 

D. — Decius ; Dutch. 

D. — Didymium. 

D. — Five hundred. 

D. — Five hundred thousand. 

D. or d. — Decime, decimes. 

D. or d. — Denarius, a penny. 

D. or d. — Denarii, pence. 

D. or d. — Denier, deniers. 

D. or d. — Died. 

D.f or d.f ; Di. or di. — Dimes. 

D.f or d.f; Deg. or deg. — De- 
gree or degrees. 

D.f or d.f ; Diam. or diam. — 
Diameter. 

D. or d. ; da.f dy.J — Day, days. 

da.| or dr. — Daughter. 

Dan. — Daniel ; Danish. 

Dart. — Dartmouth. 

Dat., dat. or D. — Dative (case). 

D. B. or Domesd. B. — Domes- 
day-book. 

D.C. — Da Capo, again. 

D.C. — District of Columbia. 

D.C.L. — Doctor of Civil Law. 

D.D. — Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor 
of Divinity. 

Dea. — Deacon. 

Dec. — December. 



Dec. or dec. — Declension. 
Dec. or dec. — Declination. 
Deg. or deg. — Degree, degrees. 
Del. — Delaware ; Delegate. 
Del. or del. — Delineavit, drew. 
Dem. — Democrat, Democratic. 
Dem. or dem. — Demonstrative 

(pronoun). 
Den. — Denmark. 
Dep. — Deputy. 
Dept. or dept. ; Dep.f or dep.f — 

Department. 
Deut. — Deuteronomy. 
D.F. — Dean of Faculty. 
Dft. or Deft.f — Defendant. 
D.G. — Dei gratia, by the grace 

of God. 
D.G. — Deo gratias, thanks to 

God. 
Diam. or diam. — Diameter. 
Diet. — Dictator; Dictionary. 
Dim. or dim. — Diminutive. 
Dis. or dis. — Distance, distant. 
Disc, or disc. ; Disct.f or disct. ;f 

Dis.f or dis.f — Discount. 
Diss, or diss. — Dissertation. 
Dist. or dist. — District. 
Dist.-Atty. — District- Attorney. 
Div. — Division. 
Div. or div. — Dividend. 
D.M. — Doctor of Music. 
Do. or do. — Ditto, the same. 
Doct.f D.J or Dr. — Doctor. 
Dol., dol., or doll.t — Dollar. 
Dols. or dols. — Dollars. 
D.O.M. — Deo optimo maxima 

to God, the best, the greatest. 
Dor. — Doric. 

Doz. or doz. — Dozen, dozens. 
D.P. — Doctor of Philosophy. 
Dpt. — Deponent. 
Dr.J — Dear. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



283 



Dr. — Debtor; Doctor. 

Dr. or dr. — Dram, drams. 

dr. — daughter. 

D.T. — Doctor Theologies, Doc- 
tor of Divinity. 

Dub. — Dublin. 

Dub. Univ. Mag. — Dublin Uni- 
versity Magazine. 

D.V. — Dec volente, God willing. 

Dwt. or dwt. — Pennyweight. 

Dy.J or d. — Day, days. 

E. — Two hundred & fifty [one.). 

E.J — Earl. 

E. (after titles). — Edinburgh. 

E. — Erbium ; East. 

E. by S. — East by south. 

E. or e. — Eagle, eagles. 

E. or e. — Ecu, ecus. 

ea. — Each. 

East. Isl. — Eastern Islands. 

E.B. — English Bible (common). 

Eben. — Ebenezer. 

Ecc.f orEccles. — Ecclesiastical. 

Eccl. — Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus. 

Eclec. Mag. — Eclec. Magazine. 

Eclec. Eev. — Eclec. Keview. 

Ed. — Editor. Eds. — Editors. 

Ed.f or ed.f — Edition. 

Edin. or Ed.f — Edinburgh. 

Edit, or edit. — Edition. 

Edm. — Edmund. 

Edw. — Edward. 

E.E. — Errors excepted. 

E.E. — Ell or ells English. 

E. Fl. — Ell or ells Flemish. 

E. Fr. — Ell or ells French. 

E.G.} or E. g. ; e. g. or ex. g.f — 
Exempli gratia, for example. 

Eg.f — Egypt. 

E.I. — East Indies. 

E.I.C. — East-India Company. 



E. I. M. Coll. — East- India Mili- 
tary College. 

Elec. — Electricity. 

Eliz. — Elizabeth. 

E. Ion. — East longitude. 

E.N.E. — East-north-east. 

Ency. — Encyclopedia. 

Eng. — England, English. 

Engd. or engd. — Engraved. 

Ent. — Entomology. 

Ent. or ent. — Entrance, [nary. 

Env. Ext. — Envoy Extraordi- 

Ep. or Epis.f — Epistle. 

Eph. — Ephesians ; Ephraim. 

E.S. — Ell or ells Scotch. 

E.S.E. — East-south-east. 

Esq. — Esquire. 

Esqs. — Esquires. 

Esth. — Esther. 

E.T. — English Translation. 

et al. — Et alibi, and elsewhere. 

et al. — Et alii, and others. 

et seq. — Et sequentia, and what 
follows. 

etct or &c. — Et cceteri, et cate- 
tcb, et c&tera, and others; and 
so forth. 

Eth. — Ethiopic. 

Evang. — Evangelical. 

Eve.f or eve. ;f Even, or even. — 
Evening. 

Ex. — Example. 

Exc. — Excellency ; Exception. 

Exch. — Exchequer. 

Exclam. — Exclamation. 

Exec, or Exr.f — Executor. 

Exec. Com. — Executive Com- 
mittee. 

Execx. — Executrix. 

Exod. or Ex.f — Exodus. 

Exon. D. — Exeter Domesday, 
book. 



284 



APPENDIX. 



Ez. — Ezra. 
Ezd. — Ezdra. 

Ezek. — Ezekiel. 

F. — Fluorine. 

F. — Forty (anc). 

F. — Forty thousand (anc). 

F. or f. — Feminine (gender). 

F. or f. — Fiat, let it be made. 

F. or f. — Florin, florins. 

F.f f.t Fr. or fr. — Franc, francs. 

F.f or f. ;f Ft. or ft. — Foot, feet. 

F., Fr.f Fri. or Frid.f — Friday. 

Fa.f Fl.j Fla. or Flor. — Florida. 

Fahr. — Fahrenheit. 

Far. or f. — Farthing, farthings. 

F.A.S. — Fellow of the Antiqua- 
rian Society. 

Fath. orfath.; Fth.f or fth.f — 
Fathom or fathoms. 

F.D. — Fidei Defensor, Defender 
of the Faith. 

F.f or Fl. E. — Flemish eU or ells. 
Fe. — Ferrum (Iron). 
Feb. — February. 
Fem. or fern. ; F. or f. — Feminine, 
ff. — The Pandects. 
F.E.S. — Fellow of the Entomo- 
logical Society. 
F.G.S. — Fellow of the Geologi- 
cal Society. 
F.H.S. — Fellow of the Horti 

cultural Society. 
Fig. or fig. — Figure, figures. 
Fig. or fig. — Figuratively. 
Fin. — Finland. 
Finn. — Finnish. 
Fir. or fir. — Firkin, firkins. 
Fl. or fl. — Flourished. 
Fl. E. — Flemish ell or eUs. 
Flor. or Fla. — Florida. 
F.L.S. — Fellow of the Linnsean 
Society. 



F. or f. m. — Fiat mixtura, let a 

mixture be made. 
Fol. or fol. ; Fo.f or fo.f ; F.J or 

f.f — Folio, folios. 
For. — Foreign. 

For. Quar. Rev. — Foreign Quar- 
terly Review. 
Fort. — Fortification. 
Fr. — France, French. 
Fr.f or Fran. — Francis. 
Fr. or fr. — Franc, francs, 
fr. or f.f — From. 
F.R.A.S. — Fellow of the Royal 

Astronomical Society. 
Fras. Mag. — Fraser's Magazine. 
Fr. E. — French ell or ells. 
Fred. — Frederic or Frederick. 
Freq. or freq. — Frequentative. 
F.R.G.S. — Fellow of the Royal 

Geographical Society. 
Fri. — Friday. 
F. R. S. — Fellow of the Royal 

Society. 
F.R.S. E. — Fellow of the Royal 

Society, Edinburgh. 
F.R.S. L. — Fellow of the Royal 

Society, London. 
F.R.S.L. — FeUow of the Royal 

Society of Literature. 
F.S.A. — Fellow of the Society 

of Arts. 
F. or f. s. a. — Fiat secundum ar- 
tem, make it according to art. 
F.S.A. E. — Fellow of the Socie- 
ty of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. 
Ft. or ft. — Foot, feet. 
Ft. or ft. — Fort. 
Fth.f fth.f — Fathom, fathoms. 
Fur. or fur. — Furlong, furlongs. 
Fut. or fut. — Future (tense). 
F.Z.S. — Fellow of the Zoologi- 
cal Society. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



285 



G. — Four hundred (anc). 

G. — Forty thousand (anc). 

G. — Gaius ; Geliius. 

G. — Glucinum ; Genitive (case). 

G. or g. — Guinea, guineas. 

G. or g. — Gulf. 

G4 Ger. or Germ.| — Germany, 
German. 

Ga. or Geo. — Georgia. 

Gal. — Galatians. 

Gal. or gal. — Gallon, gallons. 

Gall.f or gall.f— Gallon, gallons. 

G.B. — Great Britain. 

G. C. B. — Grand Cross of the 
Bath. 

G.C.H. — Grand Cross of Hano- 
ver. 

Gen. — General ; Geneva. 

Gen. — Genesis (Book of). 

Gen. or gen. — Genitive (case). 

Gent. — Gentleman. 

Gent. Mag. — Gentleman's Ma- 
gazine. 

G. gr. or g. gr. — Great gross. 

Geo. — George ; Georgia. 

Geog. or Geo.f — Geography. 

Geol. — Geology. 

Geom. — Geometry. 

Ger. — Germany, German. 

Ger. or ger. — Gerund. 

Gi. or gi. — Gill, gills. 

Gib. — Gibraltar. 

Glas. — Glasgow. 

Goth, or Go.| — Gothic. 

Gott. — Gottingen. 

Gov. — Governor. 

Gov.-Gen. — Governor-General. 

G. K. — Georgius Rex, King 
George. 

Gr. — Greek. 

Gr. or gr. — Grain, grains. 

Gram. — Grammar. 



Griesb. — Griesbach. 

Gro. or gro. — Gross. 

Grot. — Grotius. 

Gtt. or gtt. — Gutta, a drop. 

Gtt. or gtt. — Guttce, drops. 

Guin. or guin. — Guinea, guineas, 

H. — Two hundred (anc). 

H. — Two hundred thousand. 

H. — Hydrogen. 

H. or h. — Harbor, height. 

H. or h. — Hour, hours. 

h. — Husband. 

Hab. — Habakkuk. 

Hag. — Haggai. 

Ham. Coll. — Hamilton College. 

Hants. — Hampshire. 

Harv. or Har.t — Harvard. 

H. B.C. —Hudson's Bay Company. 

H.B.M. — His or Her Britannic 

Majesty. 
Hdkf. or hdkf. — Handkerchief, 
h.e. — Hoc est, that is, or this is. 
Heb. — Hebrew; Hebrews. 
Hebr.f — Hebrew; Hebrews. 
H.E.I. C. — Honorable East-India 

Company. 
Hep. sulph. — Hepar sulphuris. 
Her. — Heraldry. 
Hf.-bd. or hf.-bd. — Half-bound. 
Hg. — Hydrargyrum (Mercury). 
Hhd. or hhd.; Hd.f or hd.f — 

Hogshead, hogsheads. 
Hil. — Hilary. 
Hind. — Hindostan. 
Hist. — History ; Historical. 
H.J.S. — Eicjacet sepultus, Here 

lies buried. 
H.M. — His or Her Majesty. 
H.M.P. — Hoc monumentum po- 

suit, erected this monument. 
H.M.S. — His or Her Majesty's 

Ship or Service. 



286 



APPENDIX. 



Hon. — Honorable. 

Hond.f or hond.f — Honored. 

Hort. — Horticulture. 

Hos. — Hosea. 

H.P. — Half-pay. 

H.R. — House of Representatives. 

H.R.E. — Holy Roman Emperor. 

H.R H. — His Royal Highness. 

H.R.I.P. — Etc requiescit inpace, 
Here rests in peace. 

Hrs.f or hrs. ;t H. or h. — Hours. 

H.S. — Etc situs, Here lies. 

hum. or humb. — Humble. 

Hund. or hund. ; Hun.f hun.t — 
Hundred, hundreds. 

1. — Iodine. 

I. — One thousand (anc). 

I. II. III. — One, two, three ; or 
first, second, third. 

I.| Is.f or Isl. — Island. 

Ia.f In.| or Ind. — Indiana. 

lb. or ib. ; Ibid.f or ibid.t — Ibi- 
dem, in the same place. 

10. t (by contraction, D.). — Five 
hundred. 

IOC.f or DC. — Six hundred. 

IOCC.f or DCC. — Seven hun- 
dred. 

IOCCC.f or DCCC. — Eight 
hundred. 

lOCCCC.f or DCCCC. — Nine 
hundred. 

100. — Five thousand. 

1000. — Fifty thousand. 

Icel. or Ice.f — Iceland, Icelandic. 

Ich. — Ichthyology. 

Id. or id. — Idem, eadem; iidem, 
ecedem, the same (author or 
authors). 

I. e. or i. e. — Id est, that is. 

I.H.S. — Jesus liominum Sahator, 
Jesus, the Saviour of men. 



Illl.f or IV. — Four; fourth, 
ij. — Two (med.). 
111. — Illinois. 
Hlus. — Illustration. 
Imp. or imp. — Imperial. 
Imper. or imper. — Imperative 

(mood). 
Imperf. or imperf.; Impf.t or 

impf.f — Imperfect (tense). 
Impers. or impers. ; Imp.f or 

imp.f — Impersonal (verb). 
In. or in. — Inch, inches. 
Inch. — Inchoative (verb), 
incog. — Incognito, unknown. 
Incor. or incor. — Incorporated. 
Ind. — India, Indian ; Indiana. 
Ind. Ter. — Indian Territory. 
Indef. or indef. — Indefinite. 
Indie, or indie; Ind.f or ind.f 

— Indicative (mood). 

Infin. or infin. ; Inf.f or inf.f — 

Infinitive (mood), 
in lim. — In limine, at the outset, 
in loc.f — in loco, in the place ; 

on the passage. 
I.N.R.I. — Jesus Nazarenus, Rex 

Judceorum, Jesus of Nazareth, 

King of the Jews. 
Ins. — Inspector. 
Ins.-Gen. — Inspector-General. 
Insep. or insep. — Inseparable, 
inst. — Instant, of this month. 
Int. or int. — Interest. 
Interj. or interj.; Int.f or int.f 

— Interjection. 

in trans. — In transitu, on the 

passage. 
Io. — Iowa. 
Ion. — Ionic. 

I.O.O.F. — Independent Order 
• of Odd Fellows. 
Ipecac. — Ipecacuanha. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



287 



It. — Iridium. 

Ir. — Irish. * 

Ire. or Ir.f — Ireland. 

Irreg. or irreg. — Irregular. 

Isa. — Isaiah. 

IsL or isl. ; Is.f is.f I.f — Island. 

It. or Ital.t — Italy. 

Ital. or It.f —Italian; Italic. 

Itin. — Itinerary. 

IV. — Four or fourth. 

IX. — Xine or ninth. 

J. — Judge; Julius. 

j. — One {med.). 

J. A. — Judge- Advocate. 

Jac. — Jacob. 

Jam. — Jamaica. 

Jan. — January. 

Jap. — Japan. 

Jas. or Ja.f — James. 

J.C. — Julius Cassar. 

J. C. D. — Juris Chilis Doctor, 

Doctor of Civil Law. 
J.D. — Jurum Doctor, Doctor of 

Laws. 
Jer. — Jeremiah. 
J.H.S. — Jesus hominurn Salvator, 

Jesus, the Saviour of men. 
Jno.J — John. 
Jona. — Jonathan. 
Jos. — Joseph. 
Josh. — Joshua. 
Jour. — Journal. 
J.P. — Justice of the Peace. 
J. Prob. — Judge of Probate. 
J.R. — Jacobus Rex, Bang James. 
Jr.f jr.f ; Jun. or jun. — Junior. 
J.U.D. or J.V.D. — Juris utrius- 

que Doctor, Doctor of both 

Laws (of the Canon and the 

Civil Law). 
Jud. — Judith. 
Judg. — Judges 



Judge- Adv. — Judge- Advocate. 

Jul. — Julius. 

Jul4 — Jul}-. 

Jul. Per. — Julian Period. 

Jun. J — June. 

Jun. — Junius. 

Jun. or jun. — Junior. 

Jus. or Just.t — Justice. 

Jus. P. — Justice of the Peace. 

Just. — Justinian. 

K. — Kalium (Potassium). 

K. — King. 

K. — Two hundred & fifty (anc). 

K. — Two hundred and fifty 

thousand (anc.). 
K.A. — Knight of St. Andrew, 

in Russia. 
K.A.N. — Knight of Alexander 

Newski, hi Russia. 
Kan. — Kansas. 
K.B. — King's Bench. 
K.B. — Knight of the Bath. 
K.B.A. — Knight of St. Bento 

d'Avis, in Portugal. 
K.B.E. — Knight of the Black 

Eagle, in Prussia. 
K.C. — King's Council. 
K.C. — Knight of the Crescent, 

in Turkey. 
K. C. B. — Knight Commander 

of the Bath. 
K. C. H. — Knight Commander 

of Hanover. 
K.C.S. — Knight of Charles HI. 

of Spain. 
K.E. — Knight of the Elephant, 

in Denmark. 
Ken.f or Ky. — Kentucky. 
K.F. — Knight of Ferdinand of 

Spain. 
K.F.M. — Knight of St. Ferdi 

nand and Merit, in Sicily. 



288 



APPENDIX. 



K.G. — Knight of the Garter. 
K.G.C. — Knight of the Grand 

Cross. 
K.G.C.B. — Knight of the Grand 

Cross of the Bath. 
K.G.F. — Knight of the Golden 

Fleece, in Spain. 
K.G.H. — Knight of the Guelph 

of Hanover. 
K.G.V. — Knight of Gustavus 

Vasa of Sweden. 
K.H. — Knight of Hanover. 
Kil. or kil. — Kilderkin, kilder 

kins. 
Kingd. or kingd. ; Km.f or km.f 

— Kingdom. 
K.J. — Knight of St. Joachim. 
K.L. or K.L. A. — Knight of Leo- 
pold of Austria. 
K.L.H. — Knight of the Legion 

of Honor. 
K.M. — Knight of Malta. 
Km.f or km.f — Kingdom. 
K. Mess. — King's Messenger. 
K.M.H. — Knight of Merit, in 

Holstein. 
K.M.J. — Knight of Maximilian 

Joseph of Bavaria. 
K.M.T. — Knight of Maria The- 
resa of Austria. 
K.N. — Know Nothing. 
Knick. — Knickerbocker. 
K.N.S. — Knight of the Eoyal 

North Star, in Sweden. 
Knt, Kt.| or K.f — Knight. 
K.P. — Knight of St. Patrick. 
K.R.E. — Knight of the Red Ea 

gle, in Prussia. 
K.S. — Knight of the Sword, in 

Sweden. 
K.S. A. — Knight of St. Anne of 

Russia. 



K.S.E. — Knight of St. Esprit, 
in France. 

K.S.F. — Knight of St. Fernando 
of Spain. 

K.S.F.M. — Knight of St. Ferdi- 
nand and Merit, in Naples. 

K.S.G. — Knight of St. George 
of Russia. 

K.S.H. — Knight of St. Hubert 
of Bavaria. 

K.S.J. — Knight of St. Janua 
rius of Naples. 

K.S.L. — Knight of the Sun and 
Lion, in Persia. 

K. S. M. & S. G. — Knight of St. 
Michael and St. George of the 
Ionian Islands. 

K.S.P. — Knight of St. Stanis- 
laus of Poland. 

K.S. S.— Knight of the South- 
ern Star of the Brazils. 

K.S.S. — Knight of the Sword, 
in Sweden. 

K.S.W. — Knight of St. WladK 
mir of Russia. 

K.T. — Knight of the Thistle. 

Kt.t — Knight. 

K.T.S. — Knight of the Tower 
and Sword, in Portugal. 

K.W. — Knight of William of 
the Netherlands. 

K.W.E. — Knight of the White 
Eagle, in Poland. 

Ky. — Kentucky. 

L. — Fifty or fiftieth. 

L. — Fifty thousand (anc). 

L. — Latin ; Lucius ; Lithium. 

L. {after titles). — London. 

L. or 1. — Lake ; lane. 

L. or 1. — Line, lines ; link, links. 

L.f or 1. ;f Lea. or lea. ; Leag.f or 
leag.t — League, leagues. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



289 



L. or 1. ; Lib. or lib. — Liber, 

book. 
L.J or 1. ;| Lib.J or lib. ;J Lb., lb. 

or Bb. — Libra or librae, pound 

or pounds in weight. 
L.f £, or l.f — Libra or Kbrce, 

pound or pounds sterling. 
La. — Lantanum. 
La. or Lou.f — Louisiana. 
Ladp. — Ladyship. 
Lam. — Lamentations. 
Lat. — Latin. 
Lat. or lat. — Latitude. 
Lb., lb. or ft . — Pound or pounds 

weight. 
L.C. — Lord Chancellor. 
L.C. — Lower Canada. 
1. c. — Loco citato, in the place 

cited. 
I.e. — Lowercase. 
L.C.J. — Lord Chief Justice. 
L.D. — Lady-Day. 
Ld. or L.f — Lord. 
Ldp. or Lp.f — Lordship. 
Lea. or lea. — League, leagues. 
Leg. — Legate. 

Legis. or Leg.t — Legislature. 
Leip. — Leipzig or Leipsic. 
Lev. — Leviticus (Book of). 
Leyd. — Leyden. 
L.I. — Long Island. 
Li. or L. — Lithium. 
Lib. — Librarian. 
Lib. or lib. — Liber, book. 
Lieut, or Lt.f — Lieutenant. 
Lieut.-Col.— Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut.-Gen. — Lieutenant-Gene- 

ral. 
Lieut.-Gov. — Lieutenant-Go 



Lit. — Literary. 
Lit. — Literary 



Lit. or lit. — Literally. 

Liv. or Liverp. ; Lpool.f or Lpl.J 
— Liverpool. 

Liv. or liv. — Livre, livres. 

LL.B. — Legum Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Laws. 

LL.D. — Legum Doctor, Doctor 
of Laws. 

1. 1. — Loco laudato, in the place 
quoted. 

L.N.E.S. — Ladies' Negro Edu- 
cation Society. 

Lon. or Ion. ; Long.f or long.f — 
Longitude. 

Lond. or Lon.f — London. 

Lou.f — Louisiana. 

L.P. — Large paper. 

L.S. — Locus sigilli, place of the 
seal. 

L.S. — Left side. 

L. s. d. — Livres, sous, deniers. 

L.f or £, s. d. — Pounds, shil- 
lings, pence. 

Lt.f — Lieutenant. 

Lt. Inf. — Light Infantry. 

LX. — Sixty or sixtieth. 

LXL. — Ninety (anc). 

LXX. — Seventy or seventieth. 

LXX. — The Septuagmt ( Version 
of the Old Testament). 

LXXX. — Eighty or eightieth. 

M. — Milk, a thousand. 

M. — Million. 

M. — Manlius ; Marcus. 

M. — Martius ; Mutius. 

M. or Mon. — Monday. 

M. or Mons. — Monsieur. 

M.f or Marq. — Marquis. 

M. or m. — Manipulus, handful. 

M. or m. — Meiisurd, by measure. 

M. or m. — Mixtura, a mixture. 

M. or m. — Mix. 



19 



290 



APPENDIX. 



M. or m. — Mile, miles. 

M.f m. or m. — Meridies, noon. 

M. or m. ; Mas.f or mas. ;f Masc. 
or masc. — Masculine (gender). 

M.f or m.;f Mi. or Mi. — Mill, 
mills. 

M. or m. ; Min. or min. — Mi- 
nute, minutes. 

M.f m.;f Mo. or mo. — Month, 
months. 

m. — Married. 

M.A. — Master of Arts. 

M. A. — Military Academy. 

Ma. — Minnesota. 

Ma. or Mg. — Magnesium. 

Mace, or Mac.f — Maccabees. 

Mad. — Madam. 

Mad. — Madrid. [sity. 

Mad. Univ. ■ — Madison Univer- 

Mag. — Magazine. 

Maj. — Major. 

Maj. Gen. — Major-General. 

Mai. — Malachi. 

M.A.L.A. — Mechanic Appren- 
tices' Library Association. 

Mam. — Mamercus. 

Man. — Manasses (Book of). 

Manch. — Manchester. 

Mar.f — March. 

March. — Marchioness. 

Marg. Tran. — Marginal Trans- 
lation. 

Marq. — Marquis. 

Masc. or masc. — Masculine. 

Mass. or Ms.f — Massachusetts. 

Math. — Mathematics; Mathe- 
matician. 

Matt, or Mat.f — Matthew. 

M.B. — Medicines Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Medicine. 

M.B. — Musicce Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Music. 



M.C. — Master-Commandant. 

M.C. — Member of Congress. 

M.D. — Medicinal Doctor, Doctor 
of Medicine. 

Md. — Maryland. 

Mdlle. or Mlle.f — Mademoiselle. 

Me. — Maine. 

Meas. — Measure. 

Mech. — Mechanics. 

Med. — Medicine. 

Med. or med. — Medical. 

Mem. — Memento, remember. 

Mem. — Memorandum, Memo- 
randa. 

Merc. — Mercury. 

Messrs. or MM.f — Messieurs, 
Gentlemen. 

Met. — Metaphysics. 

Metaph. — Metaphor, [rically. 

Metaph. or metaph. — Metapho- 

Meteor. — Meteorology. 

Meth. — Methodist. 

Mex. — Mexico or Mexican. 

Mg. — Magnesium. 

M.-Goth. — Moeso-Gothic. 

M.H.S. — Massachusetts Histo- 
rical Society. 

M.H.S. — Member of the Histo- 
l-ical Society. 

Mi. or mi. — Mill, mills. 

Mic. — Micah. 

Mich. — Michael ; Michaelmas. 

Mich. — Michigan. 

Mid. — Midshipman. 

Mid. or mid. — Middle (voice). 

Mil. — Military. 

Min. — Mineralogy. 

Min. or min. — Minute, minutes. 

Min. Plen. — Minister Plenipo- 
tentiary. 

Miss, or Mi.f — Mississippi. 

Miss. Sta. — Missionary Station. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



291 



M. L. A. — Mercantile -Library- 
Association. 

Mls.j or mls.t — Mills. 

MM.f — Messieurs, Gentlemen. 

MM. — Two thousand. 

Mme. — Madame. 

M.M.S. — Moravian Missionary- 
Society. 

M. M. S. S. — Massachusettensis 
Medicince Societatis Socius, 
Fellow of the Massachusetts 
Medical Society. 

Mn. — Manganese. 

Mo. — Missouri. 

Mo. — Molybdenum. 

Mo. or mo. — Month, months. 

Mob. — Mobile. 

Mod. — Modern. 

Mon. — Monday. 

Mons. — Monsieur, Sir. 

Morn, or morn. — Morning. 

M.P. — Member of Parliament. 

M.P. — Member of Police. 

Mr. — Mister. 

M.R. A. S. — Member of the Royal 
Asiatic Society. 

M.R.C.S.— Member of the Royal 
College of Surgeons. 

M. R. I. — Member of the Royal 
Institution. 

M.R.I.A. — Member of the Royal 
Irish Academy. 

Mrs. — Mistress. 

M.R. S.L. — Member of the Royal 
Society of Literature. 

M.S. — Memories sacrum, Sacred 
to the memory. 

M.S. — Mood-stem. 

MS. — Manuscriptum, Manu- 
script. MSS. — Manuscripts. 

Ms.f — Massachusetts. 

Mt. — Mount or mountain. 



M.T.C. or M. Tull. Cic — Mar- 
cus Tullius Cicero. 

Mus. — Museum ; Music. 

Mus. D. — Doctor of Music. 

M.W. — Most Worthy. 

M.W.S. — Member of the Wer- 
nerian Society. 

Myth. — Mythology. 

N. — Nine hundred (awe). 

N. — Nine thousand (anc). 

N. — Nitrogen ; North. 

N., Nom. or nom. — Nominative. 

N. or n. — Name, noun. 

N. or n. ; Neut. or neut.— Neuter. 

N. or n. — Note, notes. 

N.f n. ;f Na. or na. — Nail, nails. 

N.J or n. ;{ No. — Number. 

n. — Near. 

N. A. or N. Am.f — North Ame 
rica, North American. 

Na. — Natrium (Sodium). 

Na. or na. — Nail, nails. 

Nah. — Nahum. 

Nat. — National ; Natural. 

Nath. — Nathanael or Nathaniel. 

Naut. — Nautical. 

N.B. — New Brunswick. 

N.B. — North Britain. 

N.B. — Nota bene, mark well. 

N. Brit. Rev. — North- British 
Review. 

N.C.f— New Church. 

N.C. — North Carolina. 

N.E. — New England. 

N.E. — North-east. 

Neb. — Nebraska. 

N. Eng. — New-Englander (pub.). 

Neh. — Nehemiah. 

nem. con. or nem. diss. — Ne- 
mine contradicente, or nemine 
dissenliente ; no one opposing 
unanimously. 



292 



APPENDIX. 



Neth. — Netherlands. 
Neut. or neut.— Neuter (gender). 
New Test, or N. T. — New Tes- 
tament. 
N.F. — Newfoundland. 
N.H. — New Hampshire. 
NH.H.S. — New -Hampshire 

Historical Society. 
Ni. or Nk. — Nickle. 
N.J. — New Jersey. 
N.L. or N. lat. — North latitude. 
N. 1. or n. 1. — Non liquet, it does 

not appear. 
NLtornLf — Nail. 
Nls.t or nls.t — Nails. 
N.M. — New Mexico. 
N.N.E. — North-north-east. 
N.N. W. — North-north-west. 
N.O. — New Orleans. 
No. or no.J — Numero or nombre, 

number. Nos. — Numbers. 
Nom. or nom. — Nominative. 
Nov. — November. 
N.P. — New Providence. 
N.P. — Notary Public. 
N.S. — New Style (after 1752). 
N.S. — Nova Scotia. 
N.T. — New Testament, 
n.u. — Name or names unknown. 
Num. — Numeral. 
Num. or Numb.t — Numbers 

(Book of). 
Numer. — Numerator. 
Nux vom. — Nux vomica. 
N. V.M. — Nativity of the Virgin 

Mary. 
N.W. — North-west. 
N.Y.— New York. 
N.Y.H.S.— New-York Historical 

Society. 
N. Y. Eev. — New- York Keview. 
N. Zeal. — New Zealand. 



0. — Ohio. 

0. — Eleven {arte). 

0. — Eleven thousand (anc.). 

0. — Oxygen. 

Os, 30t, or OOOt- — Three 
atoms of oxygen. 

Ob. or ob. — Obiit, he or she died. 

Obad. — Obadiah. 

Obj. or ob.t — Objection. 

Obj. or ob.t — Objective (case). 

Obs. — Observation. 

Obs. — Observatory. 

Obs. or obs. — Obsolete. 

Obt-t or obedt. — Obedient. 

Oct. — October. 

O.F. — Odd Fellow, or Odd Fel- 
lows. 

Old Test, or O.T. — Old Testa- 
ment. 

Olym. — Olympiad. 

Op. or op. — Opposite. 

Opt. — Optics. 

Opt. or opt.; Optatt or optat.t 
— Optative (mood). 

Or. — Oregon. 

Ord. — Ordinary. 

Ornith. — Ornithology. 

O.S. — Old Style (before 1752). 

Os. — Osmium. 

O.T. — Oregon Territory. 

O.T. — Old Testament. 

O.U. A. — Order of United Ame- 
ricans. 

Oxf. — Oxford. 

Oxon. — Oxonia, Oxonii, Oxford. 

Oz. or oz. — Ounce, ounces. 

P. or G. — Four hundred (anc). 

P. — Four hundred thousand. 

P. — Phosphorus. 

P. — Publius. 

P.t or p. — Page. 

P. or p. — Pint, pints ; pole, poles. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



293 



P. or p. — Particula or pugillus, 
what is taken between the 
fingers. 

P.f or p. ;f Part, or part. — Par- 
ticiple. 

P.f p. ;t Pi- or pi. — Pipe, pipes. 

P.| Pop. or pop. — Population. 

P.A. or p.a. — Participial adjec- 
tive. 

Pa.f or Penn. — Pennsylvania. 

P.iE. or p. aeq. — Partes cequales, 
equal parts. 

Pal. — Palestine. 

Pamph. — Pamphleteer. 

Par. — Paragraph. 

Par. or par. — Parish. 

Par. Pas. — Parallel passage or 
passages. 

Pari. — Parliament. 

Pari, or pari. — Parliamentary. 

Part, or part. — Participle. 

Partic. or partic. — Particle. 

Pash. or pash. — Pashalic. 

Pass. — Passive (voice). 

Payt. — Payment. 

Yb. — Plumbum (Lead). 

P. C. — Patres Oonscripti, Con- 
script Fathers ; Senators. 

P.C. — Privy Counsellor. 

Pd. — Palladium. 

Pd. or pd. — Paid. 

P.E.I. — Prince Edward Island. 

Pen. or pen. — Peninsula. 

Penn. — Pennsylvania. 

Pent. — Pentecost. 

Per. — Persia or Persian. 

per an.— Per annum, by the year. 

per ct.j or per cent. — Per cen- 
tum, by the hundred. 

Perf. or peril; Pf.f or pf-t — 
Perfect (tense). 

Peri. — Perigee. 



Pers. or pers. — Person. 

Pers. or pers. pron. — Personal 
pronoun. 

Persp. — Perspective. 

Pet. — Peter. 

Pf.t or pf.f — Perfect (tense). 

Ph. D. or P. D.f — Philosophies 
Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. 

Phil. — Philip ; Philippians. 

Phil. — Philosophy. 

Phil, or phil. — Philosophically. 

Phila. or Phil.f — Philadelphia. 

Philem. — Philemon. 

Phil. Mag. — Philosophical Ma- 
gazine. 

Philom. — Philomathes, a lover 
of learning. 

Philomath. — Philomathematicus, 
a lover of mathematics. 

Phil. Trans. — Philosophical 
Transactions. 

Phosph. — Phosphorus. 

Phren. — Phrenology. 

P.H.S. — Pennsylvania Histori- 
cal Society. 

Pi. or pi. — Pipe, pipes. 

Pinx. or pxt.f — Pinxit, painted. 

Pk. or pk. — Peck. 

Pks. or pks. — Pecks. 

PL or pi. — Place. 

PI. or pi. — Plate or plates. 

PI. or pi. ; Plur. or plur. — Plural. 

PL or Pt.f — Platinum. 

Plup. or plup. ; Plupf.f or plupf.j 
— Pluperfect. 

Plff. — Plaintiff. 

Plur. or piur. — Plural. 

P.M. — Postmaster. 

P.M. — Passed Midshipman. 

P.M.f p.m. or p.m. — Post meri- 
diem, afternoon, evening. 

P.M.G. — Postmaster-General. 



294 



APPENDIX. 



P.M.G. — Professor of Music in 
Gresham College. 

P.O. — Post-Office. 

Poet, or poet. — Poetically. 

Pop. or pop. — Population. 

Port. — Portugal or Portuguese. 

Posit, or posit. — Positive. 

Pot. or pot. — Pottle, pottles. 

P.P. — Pulvis patrum, the Je- 
suits'-bark in powder. 

P.P.C. — Pour prendre conge, 
to take leave. 

Pp. or pp. — Pages. 

P. p. or p. p. — Past participle. 

P. pr. or p. pr. — Participle pre- 
sent. 

Ppt. or ppt. — Prceparaius, pre- 
pared. 

P.R. — Populus Eomanus, the 
Roman people. 

P.R. — Porto Rico. 

pr.} — Per, by the. 

Pr. or pr. — Pronounce. 

Pr.f or pr.f — Province. 

Pr.f or pr.f ; Pron. or pron. — 
Pronoun. 

Pr.f or pr. ;f Pret. or pret. — 
Preterite (tense). 

Pr. p. or pr. p. — Present parti- 
ciple. 

P.R.A. — President of the Royal 
Academy. 

Pref. — Preface. 

Prep, or prep. — Preposition. 

Pres. or pres. — Present (tense). 

Pres. — President. 

Presid. — Presidency. 

Pret. — Preterite (tense). 

Prim, or prim. — Primary. 

Prob. — Problem. 

Prof. — Professor. 

Pron. or pron. — Pronoun. 



Pron. or pron. adj. — Pronomi- 
nal adjective. 

Prop. — Proposition. 

Prot. — Protestant. 

Pro tern. — Pro tempore, for the 
time being. 

Prov. — Proverbs ; Provost. 

Prov. or prov. — Province. 

prox. — Proximo, next (month). 

Prp.f or prp.f — Preposition. 

P.R.S. — President of the Rcyal 
Society. 

Prus. — Prussia or Prussian. 

P.S. — Participle-stem. 

P.S. — Post scriptum, Postscript 

P. S. — Privy Seal. 

Ps. — Psalm or Psalms. 

P.T. or p. t. — Post-town. 

Pt.f — Platinum. 

Pt. or pt. — Part; port; point. 

Pt. or pt. — Pint. 

Pts. or pts. — Pints. 

P. Th. G. - Professor of Theo- 
logy in Gresham College. 

P. V. or p.v. — Post- village. 

Pub. — Publisher ; Publication; 
published. 

Pub. Doc. — Public Documents. 

Puis. — Pulsatilla. 

Pun. or pun. — Puncheon \ pun- 
cheons. 

Pwt. or pwt. — Pennyweight, 
pennyweights. 

Q. — Five hundred (erne). 

Q. — Five hundred thousand. 

Q. — Quintus ; Quintius. 

Q. — Queen. 

Q., Ques. or Quest.f — Question. 

Q. or q. — Quadrans, a farthing; 
quadrantes, farthings. 

Q4 or q.} Qu.f or qu.;f Qy. or 
qy. — Queer e, inquire ; query. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



295 



q. — Quasi, as it were. 

Q.B. — Queen's Bench. 

Q.C. — Queen's College. 

Q.C. — Queen's Counsel. 

Q. d. or q. d. — Quasi dical, as if 
he should say ; quasi dictum, as 
if said ; quasi dixisset, as if he 
had said. 

Q.E. or q.e. — Quod est, which is. 

Q.E.D. — Quod erat demonstran- 
dum, which was to be proved. 

Q.E.F. — Quod erat faciendum, 
which was to be done. 

q. 1. — Quantum libet, as much as 
you please. 

Q. Mess. — Queen's Messenger. 

Qm. or qm. — Quomodo, how, by 
what means. 

q. p. or q. pi. — Quantum placet, 
as much as you please. 

Qr. or qr. — Quarter. 

Qrs. or qrs. — Quarters. 

Q.S. — Quarter Sessions. 

q. s. — Quantum sufficit, a suffi- 
cient quantity. 

Qt. or qt. — Quart. 

Qts. or qts. — Quarts. 

Quar. or Qu.f — Quarterly. 

Ques. — Question. 

Quint. — Quintilius. 

q. v. — Quantum vis, as much as 
you will. 

q. v. — Quod vide, which see. 

Qy. or qy. — Query. 

R. — Eighty (anc). 

R. — Eighty thousand {anc). 

R. — Recipe, take. 

R. — Regina, Queen. 

R. — Rex, King. 

R. — Rhodium. 

R.J or Rem. — Remark, Remarks. 

R.f or Russ. — Russia, Russian. 



R. or r. — River. 

R. or r. — Rod, rods. 

R. or r. — Rood, roods. 

R.f or r.f — Rule. 

r. — Resides ; retired ; rises. 

R.A. — Royal Academy. 

R. A. — Royal Academician. 

R.A. — Royal Arch. 

R.A. — Royal Artillery. 

R.A. — Russian America. 

Rad. — Radical. 

Rd.f or rd.f — Rod; rood. 

R.E. — Royal Engineers. 

Re. or re. — Removed. 

Rec. — Recipe. 

Reed. — Received. 

Recpt.f — Receipt. 

Rec. Sec. or Secy.f — Recording 
Secretary. 

Rect. — Rector. 

Ref. — Reformation ; Reformed. 

Ref. Ch. — Reformed Church. 

Ref. or ref. — Reference. 

Reg. — Register, Registry. 

Reg. Prof. — Regius Professor 

Regr. — Registrar. 

Regt. — Regiment. 

Rel. or rel. pron. ; Rel. or rel. pr.f 
— Relative pronoim. 

Rem. — Remark or remarks. 

Rep. — Reporter. 

Rep. — Representative. 

Repub. or Rep.f — Republic 

Rev. — Reverend ; Revelation. 

Rev. — Review. 

Rhet. — Rhetoric. 

R.I. — Rhode Island. 

R.I.H.S. — Rhode-Island Histo- 
rical Society. 

Richd. — Richard. 

R.M. — Royal Marines. 

R.N. — Royal Navy. 



296 



APPENDIX. 



R.N.O. — Eiddare af Nordstjerne, 

Knight of the Order of the 

Polar Star. 
Ro. — Recto, right-hand page. 
Robt. — Robert. 
Rom. — Romans (Book of). 
Rom. Cath. — Roman Catholic, 
R.P. — Regius Professor, the 

King's Professor. 
R.P. — Resjmblica, Republic. 
R.R. — Railroad. 
R.S. — Right side. 
R.S.S. — Rsgice Socieiatis Socius, 

Fellow of the Royal Society. 
Rt. Hon. — Right Honorable. 
Rt. Rev. — Right Reverend. 
Rt. Wpful. — Right Worshipful. 
Ru. — Runic. 

Russ. — Russia or Russian. 
R.W. — Right Worthy. 
E.W.O. — Riddare of Wasa Or- 

den, Knight of the Order of 

Wasa. 
S. — Sextus; seven (anc). 
S. — Solo (in Italian music). 
S. — Stem (of a word). 
S. — Sulphur; Sunday. 
S. or So.f — South. 
S.J or s.| — See. 
S. or s. — Set, sets; sign, signs. 
S. or s. — Solidus, a shilling. 
S. or s. — Solidi, shillings. 
S. or s. — Sou, sous. 
S. or s. ; Sec. or sec. — Second, 

seconds. 
3. or s. ; Sect or sec. ;f Sect, or 

sect. — Section. 
SS. or ss.; Sects, or sects. — 

Sections. 
S.J or s. ;$ Ser. or ser. — Series. 
S.f or s. ;f Sing, or sing. — Sin- 
gular (number"* 



S.f or s. ;f Subst. or subst. — A 
substantive (noun). 

S.f s.;f SS. or ss. — Semis, half. 

s.J ss.f sc. or soil. — Scilicet, to 
wit, namely. 

s.a. — Secundum artem, according 
to art. 

S.A. or S.Am.f — South America. 

Sam. — Samaritan ; Samuel. 

Sansc. or Sans.f — Sanscrit. 

S.A.S. — Socieiatis Antiquariorum 
Socius, Fellow of the Society 
of Antiquarians. 

Sat. or Sa.f — Saturday. 

Sax. — Saxon. 

Sax. Chron. — Saxon Chronicle. 

Sb. — Stibium (Antimony). 

S.C. — Senatus Consultum, a de- 
cree of the Senate. 

S.C. — South Carolina. 

Sc. or sc. ; Scr.-f or scr.f — Scru 
pie, scruples. 

Sc. or sc. — Sculpsit, engraved. 

sc. or scil. — Scilicet, namely. 

S. caps. — Small capitals. 

Sch. or sch.; Schr.f or schr.J 
— Schooner. 

Schs. or schs. — Schooners. 

Sci. — Science. 

Scip. — Scipio. 

Sclav. — Sclavonic. 

Scot. — Scotland. 

Scot. — Scotch or Scottish. 

Sc. Pen. — Scandinavian Penin- 
sula. 

Sculp, or sculp. — Sculpsit, (he 
or she) engraved. 

S.E. — South-east. 

Se. — Selenium. 

Schol. — Scholium, a note. 

Schol. — Scholia, notes. 

Sec. or sec. — Second, seconds 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



297 



Sect — Section. 

Sec. or Secy.f — Secretary. 

Sec. Leg. — Secretary of Lega- 
tion. 

Sect, or sect. — Section. 

Sects, or sects. — Sections. 

Select. — Selection or selections. 

Sen. — Senate ; Senator. 

Sen. or sen. — Senior. 

Sept. or Sep.f — September. 

Sept. — Septuagint. 

seq. or sq.f — Sequente, and in 
what follows. 

seqq. or sqq.f — Sequentibus, and 
in the following (places). 

Ser. or ser. — Series. 

Serg. — Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj- — Sergeant-Major. 

Serj. — Serjeant. 

Serv. — Servius. 

Servt. — Servant. 

Sex. — Sextus. 

S.G. — South Georgia. 

Shak. — Shakspeare. 

S.H.S. — Societatis Histories So- 
cius, FeUow of the Historical 
Society. 

Si. — Silicium or Silicon. 

Sic. — Sicily or Sicilian. 

Sim. or sim. — Similarly. 

Sing, or sing. — Singular. 

S. Isl. — Sandwich Islands. 

S.J.C — Supreme Judicial Com-t. 

S.L. — Solicitor at Law (Scot.). 

S.L. or S. lat. — South latitude. 

Sid. or sld. — Sailed. 

S. L. P.q. Preston. Soc. Hon. — 
Societatis Literarice Philosophi- 
ctzque Prestonensis Socius Ho- 
norarius, Honorary Member of 
the Literary and Philosophical 
Society of Preston. 



S.M. Lond. Soc. Cor. — Societatis 
Medicos Londonensis Socius Cor. 
Corresponding Member of the 
London Medical Society. 

Sn. — Stannum (Tin). 

s. n. — Secundum naturam, ac- 
cording to nature. 

So.f — South. 

Soc. Isl. — Society Island's. 

Sol. — Solomon. 

Sol. — Solicitor; Solution. 

Sol.-Gen. — Solicitor-General. 

S. of Sol. — Song of Solomon. 

South. Lit. Mess. — Southern 
Literary Messenger. 

South. Quar. Rev. — Southern 
Quarterly Review. 

S.P. or s. p. — Seaport. 

S.P. or s. p. — Sine prole, without 
issue. 

Sp. — Spain or Spanish. 

S.P. A.S.— Societatis Philosojrfiicai 
Americana Socius, Member of 
the American Philosophical 
Society. 

S.P.G. — Society for the Propa- 
gation of the Gospel. 

Sp. or sp. gr. — Specific gravity. 

S.P.Q.R. — Senatus Populusque 
Romarms, the Senate and Ro- 
man people. 

Sq. or sq. ft. — Square foot, feet. 

Sq. or sq. in. — Square inch or 
inches. 

Sq. or sq. m. — Square mile or 
miles. 

Sq. or sq. r. — Square rood or 
roods. 

Sq. or sq. yd. — Square yard. 

Sq. or sq. yds. — Square yards. 

sq.f — In what follows. 

sqq.f — In the following (places). 



298 



APPENDIX. 



Sr. — Strontium. Sr.J — Sir. 

S.R.I. — Sacrum Romanum Impe- 
rium, the holy Roman empire. 

S.R.S. — Societatis Regies Socius, 
Fellow of the Royal Society. 

S.S. — Sunday School. 

SS. or ss. — Sections. 

SS. or ss. — Semis, half. 

SS.f or ss.t — Scilicet, to wit. 

S. S. C. — Solicitor before the 
Supreme Courts (Scotland). 

S.S.E. — South-south-east. 

S.S.W. — South-south-west. 

St. — Saint. 

St. or st. — Street ; Strait. 

Stat. — Statute or statutes. 

S.T.D. — Sanctce Theologice Doc- 
tor, Doctor of Divinity. 

Ster. or ster. ; Stg.f or stg.f — 
Sterling. 

S.T.P. — Sanctce Theologice Pro- 
fessor, t rofessor of Divinity. 

Sts. or sts. — Streets. 

Subj. or subj,; Subjunct.f or 
subjunct.f — Subjunctive. 

Subst. or subst. — Substantive. 

Suff. or suff". — Suffix. 

Su.-Goth. — Suio-Gothic. 

Sulph. — Sulphur or sulphurous. 

Sup. — Supplement. 

Super, or super. — Superfine. 

Superl. or superl. — Superlative. 

Supt. — Superintendent. 

Surg. — Surgeon ; Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon-General. 

Surv. — Surveyor. 

Surv.-Gen. — Surveyor-General. 

Sus. — Susannah. 

S.W. — South-west. 

Sw. — Sweden or Swedish. 

Switz. — Switzerland. 

Syr. — Syria or Syriac. 



T. — A hundred and sixty {anc.,. 

T. — A hundred and sixty thou- 
sand (anc). 

T. — Technical (term). 

T. — Tenor {in music). 

T. — Titus; Titius; Tullius. 

T.f or Tur.— Turkey or Turkish. 

T. — Tutti, the whole band after 
a solo. 

T. or t.; Tn.f or tn.f — Town, 
township. 

T. or t. ; Tom.f or tom.f — Tome, 
tomes. 

T. or t. — Ton, tons ; tun, tuns. 

T. or tr. — Trillo, a shake. 

Ta. — Tantalum (Columbium). 

Te. — Tellurium. 

Tenn. or Ten.f — Tennessee 

Ter. — Territory. 

Term. — Termination. 

Tex. — Texas. 

Text. Rec. — Textus Receptus, the 
Received Text. 

Th. — Thorium. 

Th.f Thu.f Thurs. — Thursday. 

Theo. — Theodore. 

Theol. — Theology, Theological. 

Theoph. — Theophilus. 

Theor. — Theorem. 

Thess. — Thessalonians. 

Thos. — Thomas. 

Thurs. — Thursday. 

Ti. — Titanium. 

Tier, or tier. — Tierce, tierces. 

Tim. — Timothy. 

Tit. — Titus. 

T.O. — Turnover. 

Tob. — Tobit. 

Tom.f or tom.f — Tome, tomes* 

Tonn. or tonn. — Tonnage. 

Tr. — Terbium. 

Tr. or tr. — Transpose. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



299 



Tr. -Trustee. Trs. — Trustees. 
Tr. Brit. Mus. — Trustee of the 

British Museum. 
Trans, or Tr.f — Translator. 
Trans, or Tr.f — Translation. 
Trans, or trans. — Translated. 
Treas. or Tr.f — Treasurer. 
Trin. — Trinity. 
T.S. — Tense-stem, or stem of 

the perfect tense. 
Tues. or Tu.f — Tuesday. 
Tur. — Turkey or Turkish. 
Turnp. — Turnpike. 
Tut. — Tutor. 
Typ. — Typographer. 
U. — Uranium. 
U.C. — Upper Canada. 
U. E. I. C. — United East- India 

Company. 
U.J.C. — Utriusque Juris Doctor, 

Doctor of both Laws, 
alt. — Ultimo, last ; of the last 

month. 
U.K. — United Kingdom, 
um. — Unmarried. 
Univ. — University. 
U.S. — United States. 
U.S.A. — United States-Army. 
U.S.A. — United States of Ame- 
rica. 
U. S. Lit. Gaz. — United- States 

Literary Gazette. 
U.S.M. — United-States Mail. 
U.S.M. — United-States Marines. 
U.S.N. — United-States Navy. 
U.S.S. — United-States Ship, 
u. s. — Ut supra, as above. 
V. — Five or fifth. 
V. — Five thousand (anc). 
V. — Vanadium. 
V. — Victoria. 
V, — Violin. V V. — Violins. 



V. or v. — Verb. 

V.J or v. ;J Ver. or ver. — Verse, 
verses, vv.f — Verses. 

V. or v.; Vi.t or vi.;| Vid.J or 
vid.| — Vide, see. 

V.f or v. ;t Vil. or vil. — Village. 

V., Voc. or voc. — Vocative. 

V.f or v. ;f Vol. or vol. — Vo- 
lume. 

v., vs. or vers. — Versus, against. 

Va. — Virginia. 

Vat. — Vatican. 

v. a. — Verb active. 

v. aux. — Verb auxiliary. 

v. def. — Verb defective. 

v. dep. — Verb deponent. 

V.C. — Vice-Chancellor. 

V. D. M. — Verbi Dei Minister, 
Minister of God's Word. 

Ven. — Venerable. 

Ver. or ver. — Verse, verses. 

vers. — Versus, against. 

V. g. or v. g. — Verbi gratia, for 
example. 

VI. — Six or sixth. 

VII. — Seven or seventh. 

VIII. — Eight or eighth. 
Villi, f or IX. — Nine or ninth. 
Vice-Pres. or V.P.f — Vice-Pre- 
sident. 

v. imp. — Verb impersonal. 

v. in. or v. i.f — Verb intransitive. 

v. irr. — Verb irregular. 

Vil. or vil. — Village. 

Vise, Vis. or V.f — Viscount. 

viz. or vl.J — Videlicet, to wit, 

namely, 
v. n. — Verb neuter. 
Vo. — Verso, left-hand page. 
Voc. or voc. — Vocative (case). 
Vol. or vol. — Volume. 
Vols, or vols. — Volumes. 



800 



APPENDIX. 



V. R. — Victoria Eegina, Queen 
Victoria. 

v. r. — Verb reflective. 

v. tr. — Verb transitive. 

Vt — Vermont. 

Vul. — Vulgate (Version). 

Vulg. or vulg. — Vulgar (expres- 
sion). 

W. — Welsh; West. 

W. — Wolfram (Tungsten). 

w. — Wife. 

W. or Wed. — Wednesday. 

W.f or w. ;t Wk. or wk. — Week. 

Wash. — Washington. 

West. Res. Coll. — Western Re- 
serve College. 

Westm. Rev. — Westminster Re- 
view. 

w.f. — Wrong font. 

Whf. or whf.; Wf.f or wf.f — 
Wharf. 

W.I. or W. Ind.f — West Indies 
or West India. 

Wis. or Wise. — Wisconsin. 

Wisd. — Wisdom (Book of). 

Wks. or wks. — Weeks. 

W. Ion. — West longitude. 

Wm. or Will.t — William. 

W.M.S. — Wesleyan Missionary 
Society. 

W.N.W. — West-north-west. 

Wp. — Worship. 

Wpful. — Worshipful. 

W.S. — Writer to the Signet. 

W.S.W. — West-south-west. 

W.T. — Washington Territory. 

Wt. or wt. — Weight. 

X. — Ten or tenth. 

X . — A thousand (awe). 

X. — Ten thousand (anc). 

XL, XII. — Eleven, twelve. 

XIII. — Thirteen. 



XIIILf or XIV. — Fourteen. 
XV., XVI. — Fifteen, sixteen. 

XVII. — Seventeen. 

XVIII. or XIIX.J — Eighteen. 
XVIIII.t or XIX. — Nineteen. 

XX. — Twenty. 

XXI. — Twenty-one. 

XXII. — Twenty-two. 
XXX. — Thirty. 
XXXX.f or XL. — Forty. 
XC. or LXL.f— Ninety. 
X.f or Xt.f — Christ. 
Xmas.f or Xm.f — Christmas. 
Xn.f or Xtian.f — Christian. 
Xnty.f or Xty.f — Christianity. 
Xper.f — Christopher. 

Y. — A hundred and fifty (anc.). 

Y. — A hundred and fifty thou- 
sand (anc). 

Y. — Yttrium. 

Y-t y-t or yr. — Year. 

Y.B. or Yr.-Bk. — Year Book. 

Yd. or yd. — Yard. 

Yds. or yds. — Yards. 

y.t orye-f — The. 

ym.-j- _ Them. 

yn-f — Then. 

y r -f — Their; your. 

ys-f — This. 

yfcf _ That. 

Yrs. or yrs. — Years. 

Yrs.t — Yours. 

Z. — Two thousand (anc). 

Z. — Two millions (anc). 

Z. or Zr. — Zirconium. 

Zech. — Zechariah. 

Zeph. — Zephaniah. 

Zn. — Zinc. 

Zool. — Zoology. 

&. — And. 

&c. or etc. — Et cceteri, et caterer, 
et ccetera, and the rest. 



Signs. 



301 



V. — MEDICAL, AKITHMETICAL, ALGEBEAIC, AND 
GEOMETRICAL SIGNS. 



$ . . 


. Recipe, take of. 


A 


15 . . 


. Semis, half. 


Z 


a, or aa 


. Ana, equal parts of 


L 




each. 


1 


ft. . . 


. Pound. 


en 


1 ■ • 


. Ounce. 


> 


3 . . 


. Dram. 


C" 


3 . . 


. Scruple. 


< 


¥ . . 


. Per, each. 


-3 


@ . . 


. At or to. 


— 


$ . . 


. Dollar or dollars. 




£ . . 


. Pound or pounds 
sterling. 


~ 


/ • • 


. Shilling or shillings. 


II 


+ • . 


. Plus, more, in ad- 


V 




dition. 


-H- 


— • • 


Minus, less, in sub- 
traction. 




X . . 


. Into, in multiplica- 


7 




tion. 


£ 


-!- . . 


. By, in division 




= . . 


. Equal to. 


± 




. Signs in proportion. 


oo 


V v • 


. The radical sign in 


oc 




evolution. 


O 


w> . . 


. Sign in evolution. 


o 


GQ . . 


. Unknown differ- 
ence; similitude. 


„ 


□ . . 


. Regular quadran- 


TV 



Triangle. 

Angle. 

Right angle. 

Perpendicular. 

Rectangle. 

Greater than. 

Greater than. 

Less than. 

Less than. 

The difference, or 
excess. 

The difference, or 
excess. 

Parallelism. 

Equiangular. 

Geometrical propor- 
tion. 

Equivalent. 

Sum or integral. 

Residual. 

Whence. 

Positive or negative. 

Infinitely large. 

Proportional to. 

Circle, or 360°. 

Degree. 

Minute of arc. 

Second of arc. 
Katio between diam. 
and circumference 
Napier's base. 



302 



APPENDIX. 



VI. — ASTRONOMICAL CHARACTERS. 









I. THE TWELVE SIGNS OF THE 


ZODIAC 




T . . Aries, the Ram. 


=o= . . 


Libra, 


the Balance. 


8 . . Taurus, the Bull. 


in . . 


Scorpio, the Scorpion. 


rr . . Gemini, the Twins. 


t • • 


Sagittarius, the Archer. 


23 < . Cancer, the Crab. 


vs . . 


Capricornus, the Goat- 


SI . . Leo, the Lion. 


£? . . 


Aquarius, the Waterman 


ITU . . Virgo, the Virgin. 


5£ . . 


Pisces 


the Fishes. 


H. THE PLANETARY SIGNS. 




$ . . . . Mercury. 


G\ . 


. . 


Iris.* 


9 






. Venus. 


« • 




. 


Flora.* 


© 






. . Earth. 


<s» . 




. 


Metis.* 


© 






. Moon. 


<2> • 




. 


Parthenope.* 


$ 






. Mars. 


cT • 




. 


Clio.* 


? 






. Ceres.* 


&.. < 




. 


Irene.* 


$ 






. Pallas.* 


u . 




. 


Jupiter. 









. Juno.* 


* . 




. 


Saturn. 


S 






. Vesta.* 


# • 




. 


Uranus. 


m 






. Astreea.* 


¥ . 




. 


Neptune. 


g 






. Hebe.* 


#o . 




• 


Sun. 


m. THE LD 


NAB, SIGNS 






© . . . . New Moon. 


© . 


. . 


Full Moon. 


© . . . . First Quarter. 


9 . 


• • 


Last Quarter. 


IV. ASPECTS 01 


THE PLAI 


fETS. 




6 . . . . Conjunction. 


* . . 


. . 


Sextile. 


8 . . . . Opposition. 


Q . • 


. . 


Ascending Node. 


A . . . . Trine. 


8 • • 


. . 


DescendingNode. 


□ . 






. Quartile. 


e . . 




. 


Part of Fortune. 



* These and the other asteroids are now more commonly designated by 
a O inclosing the number indicating the order of their discovery. 



HINTS ON PREPARING COPY. 303 

HINTS 

ON 

THE PREPARATION OF "COPY," 

AND ON 

PROOF-READING. 



In preparing and bringing out a book for publication, 
a great number of persons are employed ; each of them 
having to use more or less the brain, the hand, and the 
eye ; to call into action the principles of mind, me- 
chanism, and taste ; to occupy, in short, his special 
department of duty and toil. For our present purpose, 
however, we will mention only three agents who play 
a prominent though an unequal part in the production 
of a book, and who have particularly to do with the 
mode in which it is executed. These are the author, 
the compositor, and the proof-reader ; the producer 
of the ideas, the arranger of the types, and the cor- 
rector of the typographic errors. 

Let us suppose, then, that the writer of a work, 
instead of transcribing it as many times as would be 
requisite for the perusal of his friends or his fellow- 
men, is desirous of saving himself this trouble, and of 
having a large number of copies put into their hands 
by means infinitely more rapid ; namely, through the 
agency of the printing-press. Before, however, taking 
this step, he will ascertain whether his manuscript — 
or, as it is technically called, " the copy " — be in 



304 APPENDIX. 

a suitable condition for being made out by the com- 
positor and the proof-reader. If it consists of orations, 
discourses, lectures, or poems, certain portions of which 
have, for his own accommodation in delivery, been 
underlined, but which are not to be printed in Italics 
or small capitals, he will carefully expunge all such 
marks. He will examine if proper names and foreign 
or technical expressions, supposing them to occur, have 
been correctly spelled and clearly written ; rectifying 
the inaccuracies, and making the obscure perfectly 
plain and legible. He will dot the t's, and cross the 
t's, which, in the haste of composition, may have been 
left imperfect ; change such capital /'s and J's as may 
be confounded with each other ; and re-form whatever 
letters may be blurred or ill-shapen, particularly the 
s's in the terminations of plural nouns. He will see 
whether the interlineations, if there be any, have been 
introduced with sufficient distinctness. Should he make 
additions in the margin, or on the opposite or a separate 
leaf, he will mark with a caret the place of insertion, 
and say whether they are designed as text for the body 
of the matter, or as notes for the foot of the page; 
putting such or any other direction within a circle, that 
it may be readily noticed. If points have been omitted, 
he will supply them ; if erroneously made, correct 
them. All words and phrases, which, for his own ease, 
he has abbreviated, he will write in full ; and at the 
commencement of any sentence meant to begin a new 
paragraph, but not distinctly exhibited as such, he will 
put the mark (T) appropriated for that purpose. 

If, however, after all this care, an author find, on 
re-inspection, that the manuscript cannot without diffi- 



HINTS ON PREPARING COPY. 305 

culty be deciphered, he will either fairly transcribe it 
himself, or cause it to be transcribed by a good penman. 
He, or his amanuensis, will write on only one side 
of the paper, and mark the number of each page, 
that the copy may admit of being cut into portions ; 
put, if necessary, into the hands of several composi- 
tors ; and, after having been set up, be re-arranged in 
its proper order. He will see that the orthography, 
the capitals, and the points, which were perhaps imper- 
fectly attended to in the original manuscript, be all 
conformed to the best usages of the present day. He 
will distinguish the paragraphs by commencing each in 
a new line, and putting its first word at a greater dis- 
tance from the edge of the paper, at the left hand, than 
the other lines, to prevent sentences which should be 
separated from being brought together, or those which 
should be joined from being separated. On no account 
should the paragraphing be left to the compositor ; it 
being unreasonable to expect him to perform a species 
of work for which no remuneration is given, and which 
peculiarly devolves on the writer himself. 

In the observations just made, we have assumed 
that an author takes all possible care to make his 
manuscript clear and legible; and, no doubt, many 
literary gentlemen are not ashamed to do their own 
work, instead of leaving it to be done, at the imminent 
hazard of mistakes, by the compositor and the proof- 
reader. But it is a well-known fact, at least to those 
conversant with subjects relating to the press, that 
manuscripts designed for publication are often found 
written so carelessly, or with so little regard to any 
system of capitalizing and punctuation, as to render 
20 



306 APPENDIX. 

the labor of printing them vexatious, unsatisfactory, 
and unproductive, — first to the compositor, who, after 
coming to many a dead halt, and troubling ad nauseam 
his fellow-workmen, in attempting to decipher the copy, 
is obliged to creep his " slow length along," with all 
the patience that may be supplied by the prospect of 
miserable earnings ; then to the corrector of the press, 
who, whatever may be his literary qualifications, is 
certainly not familiar with the unexpressed thoughts 
of authors, and cannot find an explanation of their 
flourishes, their half-written words, 01 their peculiar 
hieroglyphics, in any of the dictionaries at his com- 
mand ; and lastly to the master-printer, whose material 
is blocked up by the slow progress of the work in 
question, and whose pockets sometimes suffer from 
the cancelling of pages, which is not unfrequently as 
much attributable to scratches of the pen as to " errors 
of the press," — as much owing to the carelessness of 
the author or his amanuensis, as to the incompetency 
of the printer or his workmen. We do not mean to 
apologize for the blunders of compositors, or to excuse 
the negligence and ignorance of proof-readers, but 
merely to express our sense of the injustice done to 
the profession of typography, when authors who have 
written illegibly, or who have themselves examined 
the proof-sheets without detecting mistakes, throw the 
whole responsibility on the shoulders of others. 

As a justification of our hardihood in thus laying 
down to authors instructions so minute and yet so 
obvious, we quote a paragraph, which has recently 
appeared in an English newspaper, showing the gross 
carelessness and utter want of thought manifested, on 



HINTS ON PREPARING COPY. 307 

the part of some writers, in preparing their works for 
publication. The case referred to is, indeed, an ex- 
treme one ; but its main feature — the illegibility of 
the copy — unhappily characterizes the manuscripts 
of many other distinguished men. 

" The late Sharon Turner, author of the ' History of the Anglo- 
Saxons,' who received three hundred a year from Government as a 
literary pension, wrote the third volume of his ' Sacred History of 
the World ' upon paper which did not cost him a farthing. The 
copy consisted of torn and angular fragments of letters and notes ; 
of covers of periodicals, — gray, drab, or green, — written in thick, 
round hand over a small print; of shreds of curling paper, unctuous 
with pomatum or bear's grease ; and of the white wrappers in which 
his proofs were sent from the printers. The paper, sometimes as 
thin as a bank-note, was written on both sides ; and was so sodden 
with ink, plastered on with a pen worn to a stump, that hours were 
frequently wasted in discovering on which side of it certain sen- 
tences were written. Men condemned to work on it saw their 
dinner vanishing in illimitable perspective, and first-rate hands 
groaned over it a whole day for tenpence. One poor fellow assured 
the writer of this paper, that he could not earn enough upon it to 
pay his rent, and that he had seven mouths to fill besides his own. 
In the hope of mending matters in some degree, slips of stout white 
paper were sent frequently with the proofs; but the good gentleman 
could not afford to use them, and they never came back as copy." 

Satisfied that the manuscript is in a fit state to be 
read, the author employs a letterpress printer, giving 
him such directions as he thinks are necessary. The 
copy is then delivered to the compositor, whose pro- 
vince it is to put in type what the author has written. 
As soon as the workman has finished the setting-up of 
some eight, twelve, or more pages, according to the 
size of the paper to be used, and has arranged them 
in such a way that they may all be printed together, 
he obtains a " proof," or impression in ink, of the 



308 APPENDIX. 

matter lie has set up ; and then lays it, along with 
the copy, on the corrector's desk. 

The obtaining of this proof-sheet implies, that the 
work of " composition," or the arrangement of the types, 
is to some extent imperfect or erroneous ; that the 
matter set up is not a true counterpart of the original ; 
that blunders have been made, as even by the best of 
compositors they will be made, in a variety of particu- 
lars which need not here be enumerated. 

Unless, from instructions previously received, or 
from an inspection of the manuscript, he has reason 
to believe that the author has a peculiar and unaltera- 
ble taste in regard to certain minutiae, — such as the 
style of type in titles and heads of chapters, the ortho- 
graphy, punctuation, use of capitals, &c, — the proof- 
reader, if faithful to his duty, proceeds to the labor of 
correction on the principle of endeavoring to render 
the work of the compositor, where changes are neces- 
sary, as neat, accurate, and consistent in its parts, as 
possible. He begins by writing the phrase " First 
Proof" on the upper margin of the first page. He 
then examines the folios and the signatures, the cap- 
tions and the subheads ; notices whether the pages are 
of equal or proper lengths, and if the lines are straight 
or crooked ; inspects the spacing, or blank, between the 
words and sentences, that they may have regularity of 
appearance ; and peruses the whole sheet more or less 
rapidly, — putting his corrections in the margin, as 
exemplified at the end of the present work. All this 
should be the first thing done in proof-reading ; but, 
from carelessness or from a supposed want of time, 
it is commonly left undone, except so far as the duty 



HINTS ON PROOF-READING. 309 

can be performed in the next process, about to be 
described. 

The manuscript is now put into the hands of an 
intelligent boy, one who is able to read it aloud clearly 
and accurately. The corrector of the press has the 
proof-sheet before him, and, if he have gone through 
the process just mentioned, has no occasion, when 
making fresh marks, to stop the reader of the copy, 
unless there be some peculiar difficulty. His chief aim 
is to make the print an accurate representation of the 
author's writing, or mode of expression : but his atten- 
tion is also devoted to the spelling of the words in 
accordance with some authorized standard ; and to the 
punctuation, that it may develop the construction of 
the sentences, and the meaning intended. He is not 
usually expected, nor indeed is it his province, to 
change the ideas, to improve the style, or, except 
merely in a lapse of the pen, to correct grammatical 
blunders. But should there occur any obscurities in 
the writing, or any errors or inelegances in the lan- 
guage, he may put a Qy. (" query ") in the margin, 
and leave the suggestions to be made in the next 
proof. 

In reading the manuscript, the boy should pronounce 
with an additional syllable such proper names as have 
a final e, to distinguish them from those which want this 
letter ; reading, for instance, Browne, Deane, Greene, 
each as two syllables, and sounding the e so as to be 
plainly heard. He should lay the accent on the last 
syllable of proper names having two consonants of the 
same kind, to distinguish them from those which have 
only one ; as, Bennett'. But all uncommon or difficult 



310 APPENDIX. 

words, whose constituent letters cannot be known by 
any mode of pronunciation, he should spell through- 
out; as, Samson, Sampson; Taylor, Tayler ; Thomson, 
Thompson. When viz. is written for "namely," and 
Sfc. for " and so forth," he should give each word such 
a pronunciation as will exhibit the mode in which it is 
to be printed ; as viz, in conformity with its spelling, 
for the former, and el cetera for the latter. At the 
beginning of every paragraph, except the first, he 
should say " Paragraph." At the commencement of 
each quotation that has quotation-marks, he should 
say " Turn," and, at the end of it, " Close ; " meaning 
by the former expression that a quotation in the manu- 
script is preceded by turned or inverted commas, and 
by the latter that it is closed or finished by apostrophes. 
In reading words which have a single line drawn under 
them, he should, instead of saying "Italics," which 
would mar the sense, gently strike the desk, making 
one tap simultaneously with the pronunciation of each 
word ; unless a long sentence is Italicized, when the 
naming of " Italics " before the passage, and " Roman " 
after it, will be a sufficient token where it begins and 
ends. To indicate such words as are meant to be 
printed on capitals or small capitals, he should say 
" Caps." or " Small caps.," as the case requires. That 
the corrector may conveniently inspect the manuscript 
when it is hard to make out, the boy should sit at his 
left hand. 

When the proof-sheet has been carefully read in the 
manner spoken of, the corrector inserts in the manu- 
script a bracket between the last word of the printed 
sheet and the first of the next ; and, over these, the 



HINTS ON PROOF-READING. 311 

paging, the signature, and, if requisite, the number of 
volume ; as, " [Page 9, Sig. 2, vol. i. ; " or " [Page 9, 
Sig. C ; " so that no mistake may be committed in 
beginning to set or make up the pages that immediately 
follow. He then cuts off the portion of the manuscript 
which is marked as above, and returns it at once with 
the proof-sheet to the compositor, whose business it is 
to make his work correspond accurately with the cor- 
rections marked. Having performed this duty, the 
compositor has another impression taken of his pages, 
which he delivers, along with the former one, to the 
proof-reader. 

And now begins another process on the part of the 
corrector of the press, by his writing on the newly 
printed sheet the words " Second Proof." After placing 
the two proofs in juxtaposition, he minutely compares 
them, in order to ascertain whether all the errors that 
had been marked have been corrected in the type ; 
re-marking those which may have been neglected, 
transcribing the queries from the first proof, and making 
such suggestions as he thinks proper. Should the 
establishment have another proof reader, he transfers 
to him the second proof, with the manuscript, to be 
examined again, and, if necessary, reconnected. If, 
however, there is only one reader, he should with 
unwearied eye peruse it afresh ; mark in the margin 
whatever errors may have escaped his notice in the 
previous reading, or been made by the compositor in 
the transference of the corrections ; and send the proof- 
sheet immediately to the writer of the work, unless the 
errors are so numerous as to require additional labor 
and a third proof. 



312 APPENDIX. 

If the author be a thoughtful man, he will take care 
that no unnecessary delay occur in the performance of 
his duty; for, though it may possibly be a matter 
of little importance to the public or himself when his 
book will make its appearance, it is of the utmost 
moment to the printer and his workmen that their 
material be not blocked up, or their time frittered 
away. He therefore proceeds at once to the inspection 
of his proof-sheet ; to the task of examining every 
page, line, word, letter, point, with a keen and scruti- 
nizing eye. In this he has in view one at least of 
two objects, — to ascertain whether the compositor and 
the proof-reader have left any errors uncorrected, or 
whether he himself, in the preparation of his manu- 
script, has been sufficiently careful to express his ideas 
in the clearest and most accurate manner. Indeed, to 
ensure the highest degree of correctness, he should 
have both objects in view ; for even if the writer have 
genius or great learning, and the printer be a man of 
talent and taste, it is not to be supposed, that these 
qualities, so desirable in authorship and typography, 
will have made either of them immaculate. It is 
therefore probable that both parties have more or 
less erred. The spelling or the punctuation may be 
sometimes erroneous ; the capitalizing and Italicizing 
may be susceptible of improvement; inelegances may 
be noticed, improprieties perceived, or grammatical 
inaccuracies detected, which, either in the warmth of 
composition or in a premature haste for going to press, 
were before concealed. Suggestions, too, may appear in 
the margin, which, though made by the office-corrector 
in the modest form of queries, are worthy, at least for 



HINTS ON PROOF-READING. 313 

courtesy's sake, of being attended to by the author ; 
who should either adopt them, and expunge, in every 
case, the word " Qy. ; " make, if thought preferable, a 
different change ; or erase both the query and the 
suggestion, — instead of leaving them, as is sometimes 
done, in the margin, to try the printer's patience, and 
to baffle his skill and ingenuity in ascertaining what is 
meant. 

But an author may be capable of rectifying all these 
mistakes, and yet, from his inexperience or his heed- 
lessness, he may note them down in the proof-sheet in 
such a way as to render them either invisible or illegi- 
ble, and thus defeat his own purposes. To prevent 
this result, he should mark his corrections, not with a 
pencil, but with a pen ; and place them, not between 
the printed lines, but in the margin, exactly opposite 
where the changes required are to be made. In short, 
to preclude the probability of additional or different 
mistakes, it should be his aim to use the very marks 
which the printer employs, and in a similar way. To 
facilitate an object so essential, we present two pages 
{see pp. 320-21) ; the one exhibiting a proof, when 
read and marked, of work such as may proceed from 
the hands of a compositor ; the other, as it would 
appear after the corrections have been duly made in 
type. The former is called a " foul proof," because it 
contains a far greater number of mistakes than could 
be made by a skilful and attentive workman ; but it is 
purposely thus presented, in order that an author may 
see at once the whole of the marks which are adopted, 
and be enabled to write in the same manner those 
required in his own proof. 



314 APPENDIX. 

We may add, for the information of young writers, 
and to deter them from making changes out of mere 
caprice, that the transferring of these to type is a 
matter of considerable labor ; and that alterations, 
when numerous, will form a rather heavy item in the 
printer's bill. To save, however, as much of this 
expense as possible, an author may, by a little ma- 
noeuvring, often substitute, in room of what he erases, 
just as much as would fill up the space, or expunge as 
great an amount of matter as he wishes to introduce. 

Having finished the reading and correcting of his 
^roof-sheet, the author should write on the lower 
margin of the last page, either the words "Revise 
wanted," indicating that he must have another proof, 
in order to compare it with the former, and to see 
whether all the pages are correct, before being printed ; 
or the term " Press," showing that, after the alterations 
have been made in the metal, and read again by the 
office proof-reader from another impression, there will 
be no occasion for himself to see a revise, but that the 
form of pages may be put to press. This impression is 
usually termed a " Press-proof," and so marked at the 
top of the first page. 

When the form has gone to press, the first fair- 
printed sheet, called a " Revise," is shown to the 
proof-reader, who compares it with the press-proof, 
and cursorily examines the folios, the foot-lines, and 
the sides of the pages, to ascertain whether any types 
have fallen out or been broken, or any " bites " have 
been made, in the last processes. 

All the operations described may be regarded as 
only one of the stages made in the progress of a work 



HINTS OX PROOF-READING. 315 

through the press. The same course has to be per- 
formed with the remainder of the book, before it meets 
the approving smile, the condemnatory voice, or the 
silent indifference, of the mighty Public, — before it 
shine as a beautiful and benignant sun in the firmament 
of literature, or glimmer like a taper through its little 
night, shedding for a moment its delusive rays on the 
step of the benighted traveller, but soon to be extin- 
guished and forgotten amid the effulgence of meridian 
day. 



In these suggestions we have said nothing of the 
processes adopted in correcting a proof taken from 
reprinted, magazine, or newspaper matter. But it 
will be easy for the printer to modify these in accord 
ance with the nature of the work, with the views of 
parties having over it literary control, or with the 
amount of time given foi bringing out the publication 
This much, however, may be said, in justice to authors 
who have no opportunity of superintending the press, 
that the same degree of accuracy should be ensured in 
the second and following editions of their books as 
in the first ; and, in relation to journals, that if an 
article, poem, or advertisement is worth the perusal of 
the public, it surely deserves to be exhibited in a form 
not altogether disgraceful to taste and letters. 



316 APPENDIX. 



VIII. — EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS. 



To enable the young author to write his corrections 
in the proof-sheet, so as to be readily seen and under- 
stood by the compositor, we now enter on an explana- 
tion of the marks used in pages 320-21, and to which 
some allusions were made in the preceding article : — 

In page 269, it is said that capital letters are indicated by three 
horizontal lines drawn beneath a word meant to be so printed ; small 
capitals, by two lines; and Italics, by one. This is illustrated in 
page 820, — in the title of the piece, the printed lines numbered 1, 
23, and the last line; where the abbreviated words, Caps., S. Caps., 
and Ital., are written in the margin, exactly opposite where the 
corrections are to be made in type. 

If a word or phrase has been erroneously put in capitals or small 
capitals, instead of common letters, the change is indicated by 
writing in the margin, as in No. 2, the abbreviation I. c. (for " lower- 
case letters "). 

To correct a wrong letter, point, or other character, a line is 
drawn slopingly through it; to correct a wrong word or phrase or 
two wrong letters, across them; and the right letter, point, word, 
or phrase, or the appropriate mark, is written in the margin, oppo- 
site the error. See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 9—11, 14, 16—19, 27, 29. 

When letters, words, points, characters, or spaces have been 
omitted, a caret is put where they are to be introduced ; the correc- 
tions, as before, being written in the margin. See Nos, 3, 4, 7, 13, 
15, 17, 24, 27. 

A line drawn in a sloping direction from right to left is put after 
all the points written in the margin; with the exception of the 
period, which is placed within a circle, and of the apostrophe, 



EXPLANATION OF PROOF-MARKS. 317 

reference-marks, and superiors, which are inserted in a figure resem- 
bling a capital V. The lines are used to separate one mark from 
another with which it is unconnected, or to attract the eye to cor- 
rections, which, from their smallness, are liable to be overlooked. 
See Nos. 2, 9, 13, 15—17, 29. 

If a space is wanting between two words, a mark like that oppo- 
site Nos. 3 and 27 is put in the margin. But, if letters that should 
join are separated, the mark ^, must be used, both under them and 
in the margin opposite, agreeably to No. 28. 

A little line is written under letters or other printed characters 
that are inverted, broken, or dirty, and also under those which are 
too lai-ge or too small, as in Nos. 5 and 24. To draw attention to an 
inverted letter, a mark resembling the figure 9, but sloped, is written 
in the margin, No. 5 ; to a bad or foul type, a small cross, like an 
Italic x, No. 24 ; and to a character of an improper size, the abbre- 
viation w.f-, denoting a wrong font, No. 25. 

When a word, character, or point is erased, a d, written with a 
line through it from the top, similar to that opposite Nos. 6, 11, 17, 
22, 29, and appropriately called a dele ( u strike out"), is placed in 
the margin. 

If a space sticks up between two words, a mark like a double 
dagger should be put opposite, as in No. 19. 

Should two words be transposed, note the mistake by drawing a 
line over the first word, and continuing it under the second; and by 
placing the abbreviation tr. ("transpose") in the margin, as in 
No. 21. If the misplaced word belongs to a different line of print, 
encircle the word, and draw a line from it to the place where it 
should be inserted. When several words are to be transposed, indi- 
cate the order by placing the figures 1, 2, 3, &c, over them, and by 
drawing a line under them; tr. being, as in the other modes of 
transposition, written in the margin. 

Should a character, word, or phrase be struck out that is after- 
wards approved of, dots are placed under it, and the Latin direction 
Stet (" let it stand or remain ") placed in the margin, as in No. 23. 

When fines of print are close that should be separate, write in 
the margin the term Lead or Leads, according to Nos. 13, 14 ; and, 
when lines are apart that should be close, say, Dele lead, using, 



318 APPENDIX. 

however, the peculiar mark for the first of these words, in accord 
ance with Nos. 23, 24. 

When several words or lines have been left out, they should be 
written at the side, top, or bottom of the page, as is most convenient, 
and a line drawn from the place where they are to be introduced, to 
the first word of the written phrase or passage, as exemplified in 
Ho. 24. But, if more matter is to be inserted than can be contained 
in the margin, the direction See Copy and the folio of the manuscript 
should be written within a circle, opposite the line where the omis- 
sion has been made. 

In the left-hand margin of Nos. 8 and 9 occurs the direction, No 
break ; and, in that of No. 12, the mark % The former denotes that 
the sentences between which a line is drawn are to be put in one 
and the same paragraph ; and the latter, that the passage preceded 
by the crotchet [ is to begin a new paragraph. The last mark is 
also used for a different purpose, as in No. 1, where the first word 
is to be brought to the commencement of the line, without being 
indented. 

If a line is irregularly spaced, as in No. 26, — that is, if some 
of the words are too close, and others too wide apart, — let the 
direction Space better be written opposite, in the margin. 

When the reader of the proof-sheet is doubtful as to the spelling 
of any word, or the con-ectness of any expression, he writes on the 
opposite margin the abbreviation Qy. (for query), with his sugges- 
tion ; as exemplified in No. 26, where the e in the first syllable of 
Shakspeare's name is queried, and the suggestion made, by the 
appropriate mark, that the letter be deled, or struck out. 

Crooked letters or words are noticed, as in Nos. 28 — 30, by means 
of horizontal lines [ ZZZZ ] drawn above and below them, and also 
in the margin. 

Corrections are usually placed in the margin to the right, as being 
more convenient to the hand of the proof-reader and the eye of the 
compositor; the left-hand margin being appropriated to directions 
and marks for which there is little room in the opposite margin. All 
the corrections or emendations should be put in the order in which 
they occur, as marked in Nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 17, 19, 23, 24, 26, 
27, 29. 



SPECIMEN OF PROOF-SHEET. 



320 



TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS EXEMPLIFIED. 





No 
1. 
2. 
3. 




4. 


S> 


5. 
6. 




7. 


Vi 

fjuaJi) 
% 


8. 
9. 
10. 


J 


11 
12. 


ulcrm. 


13. 
14. 




15. 




16. 


t 


17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 




21. 




22. 


Jut. 


23. 




24. 


cfhazt. 


25. 

26. 

27. 
28. 





29. 



WORTH OF HUMAN NATURE . fnaJul 

[ W here , unreasonable coraplainer ! dost thou stand, and what V. "Vvpo* 
is around theej/ The world spreads before -jileb its sublime Z.&* 
mysteries, where the thoughts ofsages lose themselves in won- ff 
der ; the ocean lifts up its etrnal anthems to thine ear ; the & 
golden sun lights thy path ; the wide ELeavens stretch them- A 
selves above thee, and worlds rise upon worlds, and systems/ g) 
beyond systems, to infinity ; and dost thou stand in.centre of 7ruv 
all this, to complain of thy lot and place? a / 

Cp upil of that infinite teaching^ minister at Nature's great !/ 
altar ! child of Keaven's favor ! ennobled being ! redeemed 
creature ! -J- must thou pine in moping and envious melancholy, /ji 
amidst the plenitude of the whole creation ? f"~But thy neigh- 
bor is above thee-thou sayest. What then ? What is that to ^/ £ ta .^ 
•fr k - c ? - What though the shout of millions rose around him? "^ 
What is that to the million voiced nature that God has given =/ 
thee? That shout dies away into the vacant air ; it is not his^ y 
but thy nature/ t\iy favored, sacred, and glorious natureAis J^/ 
thine f-it- is the reality, to which praise is but a fleeting breath. ' 
Thou™canst meditate the things which ' ppplouse ' but cele- f.^Vvww^^ 

brates. ,~ 

In that thou art a man, thou art/exalted\infinitelyjabove what */L* 
any man can be, in that that he is praised. I would rather be j 
the humblest -aa ^ a- in the world, than barely be thought greater ^£>j> . 
than the greatest^ Not one of the crow T ds that listened to X* 
the eloquence /ofDemosthenes and Cicero, — not one who has JZjf^ 
bent with admiration over the pages of Homer and Shake_- C^y-jp) 



spear e,r-xnot/one who followed in the train of Caesar or of gu> 

NapjYl eon, (would part with the humblest power of thought, 

for aj} .{he ! fa we that is echoing over the world/and through m/ 

Dewey. 



l eag* 



(4 (tiM oncers nmiAJUy cut a. 



vLuYva.. 



321 
PRECEDING PAGE AFTER CORRECTION. 



WORTH OF HUMAN NATURE. 

Where, unreasonable complainer ! dost thou stand, and what 
is around thee ? The world spreads before thee, its sublime 
mysteries, where the thoughts of sages lose themselves in won- 
der ; the ocean lifts up its eternal anthems to thine ear ; the 
golden sun lights thy path; the wide heavens stretch them- 
selves above thee, and worlds rise upon worlds, and systems 
beyond systems, to infinity ; and dost thou stand in the centre 
of all this, to complain of thy lot and place? Pupil of that 
infinite teaching ! minister at Nature's great altar ! child of 
Heaven's favor ! ennobled being ! redeemed creature ! must 
thou pine in sullen and envious melancholy, amidst the pleni- 
tude of the whole creation ? 

" But thy neighbor is above thee," thou sayest. What then ? 
What is that to thee ? What though the shout of millions rose 
around him ? What is that to the million- voiced nature that 
God has given theef That shout dies away into the vacant 
air ; it is not his : but thy nature — thy favored, sacred, and 
glorious nature — is thine. It is the reality, to which praise is 
but a fleeting breath. Thou canst meditate the things which 
applause but celebrates. 

In that thou art a man, thou art infinitely exalted above what 
any man can be, in that he is praised. I would rather be 
the humblest man in the world, than barely be thought greater 
than the greatest. The beggar is greater as a man, than is the 
man merely as a king. Not one of the crowds that listened to 
the eloquence of Demosthenes and Cicero, — not one who has 
bent with admiration over the pages of Homer and Shak- 
speare, — not one who followed in the train of Csesar or of 
Napoleon, would part with the humblest power of thought, 
for all the fame that is echoing over the world and through 
the ages. 

Dewey. 

21 



INDEX. 



A. 

Abbreviations require periods after 
them, 148, 149. Remarks on the 
various modes of forming, 272-276. 
List of, 277-300. Words in copy, 
not meant to be printed as abbre- 
viations, should be written in full, 
304. 

" Above all," as an adverbial phrase, 
pointed with a comma, 72, a. 

Absolute phrases, 69, 70. 

Accents, 239, X. 

" Accordingly," 72, a. 

Adjectives, two, without a conjunc- 
tion between them, 33, 34, d — g. 

Adjectives in a series, 38, e, /. Con- 
solidated with nouns, 215. 

Adjectival phrases, 22, VI. ; 59, 60, 
j—ra ,• 69, 70. 

Adverbs, 29, d ; 30, j ; 33, d ; 34, e, j ; 
38, «,/,- 52, gl; 59, i; 72-74; 217, 
2 i and j. 

Adverbial phrases, 22, VI. ; 72-74. 

Affirmative words quoted in an in- 
terrogative form, 156, /. Quoted 
in an exclamatory form, 161, e. 

" Again," with or without a comma, 
in accordance with the connection, 
72, a, b. Followed by a colon, 
when referring to several sentences, 
131, e. 

Algebraic signs, list of, 301. 

« Also," 73, e. 

M And," between two words of the 
same part of speech, 28-30. Oc- 
curring in a series of words, 37, 38. 
Between phrases or clauses in the 
same construction, 98, 99. Be- 



tween two short clauses, a verb 
understood in the last, 104, e. 
Between two clauses, the last be- 
ing added as an explanation, 113, 
114. Beginning sentences, 143, t. 

Antithetic or contrasted words and 
expressions, 45-47 ; 79,/; 104,105; 
113, 114. 

Apostrophe, rules and remarks on 
sue, with exercises, 198-207. Im- 
properly used in certain abbrevia- 
tions, 149, c ; 198, 199, c—f; 276. 
Marks the possessive case, 204, 205 ; 
216. 

Appellations of God and Christ, ini- 
tial letters in the, 259, 260. 

Appellatives before and after proper 
names, initials of, 262, c. 

Apposition, 23, X. ; 41^3 ; 213. 

Apprentices to the printing-business 
counselled, 11. 

Arabic figures, how pointed, 112; 
149, e ; 150, IV Dash supplying 
the place of, 195. Plurals of, how 
formed, 198, b. Small, or superi- 
ors, for references, 240. 

Arithmetic, the points to be used in 
books of, 141, a. 

Arithmetical signs, 301. 

" As," signifying in the manner m 
which, 89, c ,• 105, d. 

" As — as," " as — so," the correla- 
tives, 93, a ; 94, c. 

" As well as," between two words 
mutually related, 45, c Between 
a word and a phrase, or between 
two phrases, 46, e. 

" As yet," and similar phrases, 72, a. 



324 



INDEX. 



*» As," " namely," &c, 128; 138, d. 

Asterisk, the uses of the, 240. The 
three asterisks, 237, V. 

Astronomical characters, list of, 302. 

" At present," 72, a. 

Authors, the duty of, to point their 
manuscripts well, 7, 8; 304, 305. 
Are assisted in composition by an 
acquaintance with the art of punc- 
tuation, 7, 8. If considerate, they 
prepare " copy " so as to be per- 
fectly legible, 304-306. And cor- 
rect the proof-sheets with all pos- 
sible care, adopting the precise 
marks used by printers, 312, 313. 



' 4 Because," the comma sometimes 
omitted before, 89, e. 

" Besides," used as a preposition or 
a conjunction, 74, j. 

Bible references, how pointed, 100, j ; 
150, V., 1 ; 151, b, c. Chapters of 
the Bible referred to by numeral 
letters, 151, b. 

Blank at the beginning of a poetical 
quotation, when the first portion 
is omitted, 195, b. 

Blunders in sense caiised by a habit 
of careless punctuation, 3-5, 18. 
In printing, often caused by ille- 
gible writing, 306. 

Books, terms relating to, 270, 271. 
Captions, subheads, sideheads, and 
running titles, 270. Signatures, 
and names of sizes of Tolumes, 271. 

" Boro'," better spelled out, 199, d. 

"■ Both — and," the correlatives, 29, 
g; 94, h. 

Brace, for what purpose used, 231 

Brackets, the manner of applying 
them, 170, j; 235. 

Broken sentences, 175. 

" Brothers " in a firm, 41, c. 

' But," between two words con- 
trasted or mutually related, 45, c. 



Between a word and a phrase, oi 
between two phrases, 46, e. Be« 
tween two short clauses, in the 
last of which a verb is understood, 
104, c. Between two clauses, the 
latter being added by way of con- 
trast, 113, 114. Commencing sen- 
tences, 142, 143. In the sense cf 
except, 79, g. 

" But also," 35, I. 

" But has," meaning as not to have, 
93, b. 

C. 

Capitals, their uses and applications, 
257-269. Used as reference-signs 
and domimcal letters, 149,/. The 
points put after representative or 
numeral capitals, 149, /; 151, a. 
Capitals used instead of Arabic 
figures, 150, V , 2; 268, XII. In 
titlepages, inscriptions, &c, 268, 
XIII. Words wholly in capitals 
and small capitals, how distin- 
guished in manuscript, 269. 

Captions, or headings, 147, 270. 

Caret, its form and use, 237, VI. : 304. 

Catalogues, words or phrases in, of- 
ten followed by a period, 147. 
Names omitted in, sometimes sup- 
plied by two commas or by long 
dashes, 236, III., and 238, VIII. 
Leaders in, 238, IX. Abbrevia- 
tions serviceable in, 272. 

" Catholic," the initial letter of, 
265,/. 

Cedilla, the, 239, XII. 

Change of subject, abrupt, preceded 
by a dash, 175. 

Chanting service in the Liturgy, a 
colon inserted in each verse of, 141. 

" Chapter," a dash commonly put 
after the word and its numeral, 
194, d. 

Chapters of the Bible referred to by 
numeral letters, 150, V., 1; 151, b. 

" Church," initial of, 265, e. 



INDEX. 



325 



Clauses, definition of, 21, Y. Rela- 
tive, 57-€0. Parenthetical or in- 
termediate, 64. Vocative, 68. One 
clause depending on another. 89, 
90. Correlative, 93, 94. In the 
same construction, 98; 100, k, I. 
One having a verb understood, 
104, 105. Clauses preceding quo- 
tations or remarks, 108, 109: 138. 
United by conjunctions, 113, 114. 
Divisible into simpler portions, 
100, I; 116, 117. Series of, having 
a common dependence, 120, 121. 
Complete, but followed by a re- 
mark, inference, or illustration, 
130, 131. Constituting members, 
134, 135. Interrogative, 155, 156. 
Exclamatory, 159-161. In paren- 
theses, 168, 169. Concluding, on 
which other expressions depend, 
178. 

Colon, rules and remarks on the, 
with exercises, 129-141. 

Comma, rules and remarks on the, 
with exercises, 27-112. An in- 
verted, sometimes used instead of 
a small c, 236, II. 

Commas, two, used under names to 
avoid repetition, 236, III. In- 
verted, double or single, as quo- 
tation-marks, 228, 230. 

Commencement of a broken quota- 
tion in verse, blank at the, 195, b. 

Complete sentences, 142, 143. 

Compositors, a knowledge of punc- 
tuation necessary to, in their 
business, 8, 9. Their skill in the 
art conducive to mental vigor, 
9-11. 

Compound sentences, what they are, 
21, III. 

Compound and derivative words, 
distinction between, 23, XII. ; 
208, b. 

Compound words, rule and remarks 
on, 209-218. Exceptions to the 



rule, 211, 212. Compound adjec- 
tives and compound nouns, 212. 
Nouns and pronouns in apposi- 
tion, 213. Nouns used adjectively, 

213, 214. Numeral adjectives, 

214. Adjectives consolidated with 
nouns, 215. Names of places, 215, 
216. The possessive case, 216, 217. 
Compound and other phrases, 217, 
218. Exercises on, 221-223. 

Conjoined members of sentences, 
134, 135. 

Conjunctions to be pointed, when 
separated by other words from the 
parts to whicli they belong, 65, d. 
Joining words of the same part 
of speech, 28-30 ; 37, 38. Between 
contrasted or related words and 
phrases, 45, 46, c, e, /, g, j. Used 
as adverbs, 73, h, i. As correla- 
tives, 93, 94. Joining phrases and 
words, 98, 99. Joining clauses, 
89, 90, e, /; 104, c ; 108, 109, d, e ; 
113, 114. Joining sentences, 126, c. 
Beginning sentences, 134, b ; 143. 

" Consequently," how punctuated, 
72, a. 

Construction of a sentence, what it 
is, 23, XIII. Illustrated, 98, a. 

Contents of books, chapters, or sec- 
tions, how pointed, 148, b. 

Contractions and abbreviations, re- 
marks on, 272-276. Table of, 
277-300. 

Contrasted words and expressions, 
45-47; 79,/; 104, 105; 113, 114. 

Co-ordinate or consecutive clauses, 
22, V. ; 100, k. 

Copy, hints on the preparation of. 



Corrector of the press, duties of a, 
11.12; 308-315. 

Correlative clauses and words ex- 
plained, 21-23, V. and IX. Theh 
punctuation, 93, 94. 

Crotchets, or brackets, 170, j; 235 



326 



INDEX. 



Dagger, the uses of the, 240. 

Dash, rules and remarks on the, with 
exercises, 174-196. What points, 
if any, are used with dashes, 175, 
a, bi 178, a; 182, a—c; 186, 187; 
191, c. 

Dates. 79, j ; 80, k ; 100, j ; 112 ; 149, e ,- 
150,151; 195; 275. 

Decimals, pounds and shillings, how 
pointed, 150, IV. 

Definition of the art of punctuation, 
2,19. 

Definitions of terms used in the pre- 
sent work, 20-23. 

Dependent clauses, 21, 22, V. ; 89, 90 ; 
120, 121. 

Derivative words, how distinguished 
from compounds, 23, XII. ; 208, b. 
Prefixes in, 219, 220. Exercises on 
derivatives and compounds, 221- 
223. 

Designations of religious and politi- 
cal parties, initial letters of the, 
263, a ; 265, e—h. 

u Devil " and " devils," the initials 
of, 262, a. 

Diaeresis, use of the, 200, g ; 219, a ; 
239, XI. 

" Divine," " Divine Being," &c, 
the initial letters of, 260, e,/. 

Division of words into syllables, ac- 
cording to their pronunciation, 
224. According to their form, 
derivation, or meaning, 225. At 
ends of lines, 226. Exercises on 
the, 226, 227. 

Dominical letters, pointed not as ab- 
breviations, but signs, 149, /• 

' Doubtless," 72, a, b. 

E. 

Echo, or rhetorical repetition, 182, 
183. What points are used with 
the dash after it, 182, a. — c. Echo 
of the thought, 183, e. 



"Ed," "ed," &c, the terminations 
of participles in verse, 199-201, 
g—i. 

"Either," "even," beginning a final 
phrase, 79, c. 

" Either — or," the correlatives, £9> 
g ; 94, h. 

Elision of letters in poetry and dia- 
logue, 198, 199. 

Ellipsis of "namely," "that is," 
&c, 191. Of letters, figures, or 
words, 195; 238, VIII. Of worda 
at the beginning of poetical quo- 
tations, 195, b. Marks of, how 
formed, 195; 238, VIII. 

Epigrammatic sentences, 175. 

" Eternal," the initial letter of, as an 
adjective applied to God, 260, e. 

"Ev'ry," the apostrophe in, 199,/. 

Example, the punctuation of words 
introducing an, 128, 138, 191. 
A poetical, marked with inverted 
commas, 229, g. The initial letter 
of the first word in an, 267, XI. 

Exclamation, the note of, rule and 
remarks on, with exercises, 159- 
163. Sometimes improperly used, 
159, a; 161, d. 

Exercises on the definitions, 24, 25. 
On the comma, 31, 32; 35, 36; 39, 
40; 43,44; 47-49; 54-56; 61-63; 
66,67; 68; 70,71; 74-77; 80-82; 
86-88; 90-92; 95-97; 100-103; 105 
-107; 109-111; 112. On the semi- 
colon, 114, 115; 117,118; 122; 126, 
127 ; 128. On the comma and the 
semicolon, 119; 123, 124. On the 
colon, 131-133; 136; 139,140. On 
the semicolon and the colon, 137. 
On the period, 143-146; 151, 152. 
On the notes of interrogation and 
exclamation, 157, 158; 162, 163; 
164-166. On the marks of paren« 
thesis, 171-173. On the dash, 176, 
177; 179, 180; 183-185; 188, 189; 
192; 195, 196. On the semicolon 



INDEX. 



327 



and dash, 181. On the dash and 
its accompanying point, 189, 190; 
193. On the apostrophe, 201-203 ; 
205-207. On the hyphen, 221- 
223 ; 226, 227. On marks of quota- 
tion, 233, 234. General, 241-254. 

Explanation of proof-marks, 316-318. 

" Expression," meaning of the word, 
22, VII. 

Expressions, inverted, 83-85. Cor- 
relative, 93, 94. Divided into sim- 
pler parts, 116, 117. Having a 
common dependence, 120, 121 ; 178. 
In the form of questions, 155, 156. 
Indicating passion or emotion, 159 
-161. 

Extracts, consisting of words or 
expressions, 228-231. Composed 
of successive paragraphs, 232. 



" Father," " Fathers," distinctions 

made in the initials of, 260, g ; 

262, c. 
Figures, Arahic, how punctuated, 

112 ; 150, IV. Not ahhreviations, 

149, c; 150, IV. 
Final phrases, 70, g ; 78-80. Clauses, 

89, 90. 
" First," "finally," "for the most 

part," often pointed with commas, 

72, a. 
" First Cause, Father of mercies," 

the initials of, 260,/, g. 
First word in a book, tract, &c, 

258, I. In phrases or clauses 
separately numbered, 258, I., b. 
After a period, or note of interro- 
gation or exclamation, 258, II. b ; 

259, c. 

" For," between two clauses, the 
latter being explanatory, 113, 114. 
Beginning sentences, 134, b ; 143, e. 

Foreign words that have been Ang- 
licized by contraction, 149, d. 
' Formerly," often unpointed, 72, c. 



G. 

General exercises, 241-254. 

Genitive case, rule and remarks ou 
the sign of the, with exercises, 
204-207. 

Geographical and geometrical signs, 
301. 

" God," when used with a capital, 
and when with a small initial, 
259, a. 

" Gospel," initial of, varied in ac- 
cordance with its meaning, 264, d. 

Governing words, the last of two or 
more, 33, d; 34, e; 38, g. 

Grammar, some acquaintance with, 
necessary to a knowledge of punc- 
tuation, 20. 

Grammatical punctuation different 
from rhetorical, 15-17 ; 27, 28. 

Grammatical points, rules and re- 
marks on the, with exercises, 26- 
152. 

Grammatical and rhetorical points, 
rules and remarks on the, with 
exercises, 153-196. 



Hand, or index, 237, IV. 
Headings and subheads, 147, 270. 
Heads of chapters, sections, articles, 

put entirely on capitals or small 

capitals, 268, XIII. 
" Heaven," not to be printed heaven, 

199,/. The initial letter of, 260, d; 

262, b. 
" Heavenly " should have a small 

initial, 260, e. 
" Hence," "here," 73, c,/. 
" However," the pointing of, as a 

conjunction and an adverb, 73, h. 
Hints on the preparation of copy, 

and on proof-reading, 303-315- 
" Holy Spirit," " Holy Ghost," the 

initials of, usually put in capitals, 

260, t. 
"How," 109, g\ 160, b. 



328 



INDEX. 



Hyphen, rules and remarks on the, 
with exercises, 208-227. As used 
in compound words, 209-218. In 
derivatives, 219, 220. In syllabi- 
cation, 224-226. 

I. 

"I.e.,'"' that is," 128; 138, d. 
"If," 89, a, e; 109, g. 
Imperative absolute, 69, b. 
Importance of punctuation, 1-18. 
' In conclusion," when put at the 

beginning of a paragraph, 131, e. 
' In fine," " in short," " in truth," 

" in general," &c, usually pointed 

with commas, 72, a. 
" In order that," 90, g, h. 
" In order to," 79, i. 
" Indeed," as an adverb and as a 

conjunction, 73, h. 
Independent phrases, 69, 70. 
Independent sentences, 142. 
Index, or hand, use of the, 237, IV. 
Indirect quotations, questions, &c, 

108, c; 109,5-; 155, b; 229, b. 
" Indisputably," 72, a. 
" Infinite One," begun with capital 

letters, 260,/. 
Initial letters of words, when to be 

capitalized, 257-267. 
Inscriptions, capitals and small ca- 
pitals used in, 268, XIII. 
Institutions, principal words in the 

rules and reports of, 261, a. 
Interlineations to be made in copy 

with great distinctness, 304. 
Interlocutors, names of, 194, c. 
Intermediate words, phrases, and 

clauses, 22, VIII.; 46, j; 50, c; 

57, b; 58, e; 64, 65; 69, d—f; 72, 

XL, d; 73, g— i; 186,187. 
Interrogation-point, rules and re- 
marks on the, with exercises, 

154-158. 
Inverted expressions, 83-85. When 

the comma should be omitted in, 



84, d ; 85, /. When inserted, 84, e 

85, g. 

Italics, how distinguished in manu- 
script, 269. To be sparingly used, 
229, d—f; 269, 270. 

K and L. 

" King," sometimes put with a capi- 
tal K, and sometimes with a small 
one, 259, b ; 261, b. 

Language, oral, rendered more ex- 
pressive by variation of tones, 
inflections, and pauses, 1, 2. Writ- 
ten or printed, elucidated by 
points, 2. 

Larger portions of sentences, 116, 
117. 

Leaders, or dots, 238, IX. 

Letter-writers cause trouble by their 
loose style of pointing, 5. 

Letter, syllabic,and quotation points, 
rules and remarks on the, with 
exercises, 197-234. 

Letters of the alphabet, sometimes 
signs, not abbreviations, 149, /. 
Used instead of Arabic figures or 
numeral words, 150, 151. 

" Lord," " lady," initials of, 259, b; 
261, IV., b. 

Lunar signs, 302. 

M. 

" Madam," the initial of, 261, IV., b. 

Marks, not pointed as abbreviations, 
150, IV. 

Marks, miscellaneous, explanation 
of, 235-240. Arithmetical and 
other, 301. 

Marks of parenthesis, rule and re- 
marks on the, with exercises, 167- 
174. 

Marks of quotation, rules and obser- 
vations on the, with exercises, 
228-234. 

Marks, typographical, explained ant} 
exemplified, 316-321. 



INDEX. 



329 



Mathematical signs, 301. 

Medical signs, 301. 

Members of sentences, explanation 
of, 21, IV. Conjoined, 134, 135. 

Miscellaneous abbreviations, list of, 
277^300. 

Miscellaneous marks, 235-240. 

" More, greater, &c, — than," the 
correllatives, 93, a ; 94, d, e. 

" More, the, — the better," the cor- 
relatives, 93, a. 

" Most High," " Highest," applied 
to God, begin -with capitals, 260,/. 

N. 

N, the Spanish, 239, Xffl. 

"Namely," 128; 138, d- 191. 

Names of the grammatical points, 
and whence borrowed, 26. Of in- 
terlocutors, the dash unnecessary 
after, 194, c. Of persons and places 
begun with capital letters, 262. 
Compound, of places, 215. Names 
of sizes of books, 271. 

" Nature," with a capital or a small 
n, 260, c. 

" Neither — nor," the correlatives, 
29, or ; 93, a ; 94, h. 

" No," when eqtuvalent to a sen- 
tence, 130, d. 

Nominative and verb, 50-54. Abso- 
lute or independent, 69, a, c. 

Nominative clause, what it is, 21, V. ; 
50, a. Phrase, 22, VI. ; 50, a. 

" Nor," between two words of the 
same part of speech, 28, 29. In a 
series of words, 37, 38. As a cor- 
relative, 93, a; 94, h. Between 
phrases and words in the same 
construction, 98, b; 99, g. Be- 
tween two short clauses, a verb 
being understood in the latter, 
104, c. 

"Not," between two words con- 
trasted or mutually related, 46, d. 
Preceding the first of two con- 



trasted words or phrases, 46, /, A, 
and i. 

Notes of interrogation and exclama- 
tion, difference between the, 154. 
Rules and remarks on the, with 
exercises, 155-166. 

" Notwithstanding," 74, j. 

Nouns in apposition, 41, 42; 213. 
In the possessive case, 204, 205; 
216. Compound, 212. Used ad- 
jectively, 213. Gentile, initials 
of, 263. 

" Now," as an adverb and a con- 
junction, 73, A. 

" Now and then," 72, a. 

Number of a house or shop and the 
name of street, 100, j. 

Numeral adjectives, with respect to 
the hyphen, 214. 

Numeral figures and words, how 
pointed, 112. 

O. 

" O " and " oh," in what they differ, 
and how pointed, 160, c. 

Obelisk, or dagger, 240. 

Objections to the study of punctua- 
tion answered, 12-14. 

Objective absolute or independent, 
69,/. 

" Of," having before it a verb under- 
stood, 105. e. 

" Of late," '• of course," &c, 72, a. 

" Of which," "of whom," 59, h. 

Omission of " namely " or " that 
is," 191. Of letters, figures, or 
words 195; 238, VIII. Of words 
in the first line of a poetical quo- 
tation, 195, b. 

" On the one hand," " on the con- 
trary," &c, 72, a. 

" Once more," put at the beginning 
of several sentences, 131, e. 

" Or," 28-30; 37, 38; 94, h; 98-100, 
b,g,i; 104, c. 

" Orthodox," initial of. 265, g. 



330 



INDEX. 



" Pagan," initial of, 265, g. 
Pairs, words in, united by conjunc- 
tions, 38, i, j ; 99, i. Contrasted 
by prepositions, 46, g. 
Paragraph-mark, 240, 304. 
Paragraphs sometimes connected by 
a dash, 194, b. To be distinctly 
marked in manuscript, 304, 305. 
Parallel lines, 240, 301. 
Parentheses and parenthetical ex- 
pressions, difference between, 64, 
«, b. 
Parenthesis, marks of, rules and ob- 
servations on the, with exercises, 
167-173. How points are to be 
used with, 168, 169. 
Parenthetical words and expressions, 
22, VIII.; 46, j; 50, c; 57, b; 64, 
65; 69, d—f; 186, 187. The com- 
mas often omitted before and after 
short, 65, e. 
Participles used relatively, 60, j — m. 
Participial phrases, 22, VI. ; 69, 70. 
Particulars of a series, 23, XI. ; 37, 
38; 58, d; 98, 99; 120, 121; 125, 
126. 
Pauses marked and unmarked, 15, 

16; 51,52. 
" Perhaps," 72, e, d. 
Period, rules and remarks on the, 

with exercises, 142-152. 
Persons and places, initial letters of 

the names of, 262. 
Phrase, definition of a, 22, VI. 
Phrases in apposition, 41-43. In 
contrast, 45-47. Adjectival, par- 
ticipial, and absolute, 69, 70. Ad- 
verbial, 72. Final, 78-80; 70, g. 
Inverted, 83-85. Having the im- 
port of conditional clauses, 85, g; 
89, b. In the same construction, 
98-100. In titlepages, catalogues, 
&c, 147- Distinguished by Ita- 
lics or by inverted commas, 229. 
Planetary signs and aspects, 302. 



Plurals of letters of the alphabet and 
of Arabic figures, 198, b. Of nouns 
and pronouns in the possessive 
case, 205. All plural nouns to be 
clearly written in copy, 304. 

Poetical quotations beginning with 
a broken line, 195, b. 

Poetry requires more semicolons and 
colons than prose, 125, b. When 
to be marked with inverted com- 
mas, 229, g. 

Points, enumeration of the, 26, 153, 
197. 

Political parties, initials of the names 
of, 265, h. 

Possessive case, 42, A; 204, 205; 216, 
217. 

" Power" not to be written yoa?V, 
199,/. 

Prefixes in derivative words, 219, 
220. 

Prepositions, two, joined by " and," 
" or," " nor," 29, b. 

Primitive word, what it is, 23, XII. 

Pronoun 7, and interjection O, 265. 

Pronouns in appositional phrases, 
41, 42. In the possessive case, 
205, e. Keferring to God and 
Christ, 261, j. 

Pronouns, relative, 57-59. 

Proof-readers, a knowledge of punc- 
tuation indispensable to, 11, 12. 

Proof-reading, hints on, 308-315. 

Proof-marks explained, 316-318. Ex- 
emplified, 320. Corrected, 321. 

Proper names in apposition, 41, 42. 
In an address, 68. In signatures 
to documents, 147, 148. When 
pronounced in accordance with 
their abbreviated forms, 149, g. 
In the possessive case, 204, 216. 
The simples of, when to be con- 
solidated, and when to be hy- 
phened, 215, 216. To be correctly 
spelled and clearly written in co- 
py, 302. 



INDEX. 



331 



Prosopopoeia, or personification, 266, 
267. 

" Providence " and " providential," 
the initials of, 260, d, e. 

Punctuation, its importance, 1-17. 
What it is, and what its aim, 2, 19. 
Useful to all, but much neglected, 
3-5. Even by authors and print- 
ers, 5. 6. Means of acquiring a 
knowledge of its principles, 6, 7. 
Appeal, on its behalf, to authors, 
journeymen compositors, appren- 
tices, and proof-readers, 7-12. Ob- 
jections to the study of it stated 
and answered, 12-14. Its essen- 
tial principles fixed, 14. Imper- 
fectly treated by grammarians, 14. 
Regarded by speakers in a false 
light, 15. Confounded with rhe- 
torical ,15,16. Determined chiefly 
by grammatical principles, 16, 17. 
ELLustrated, 4, 18. Exemplified in 
general exercises, 241-254. 



Qualifying words, two, without a con- 
junction, 33, d ; 34, e—g. Three, 
38, e, f. 

Quantity, marks of, 239, XI. 

Questions, 154-156. Indirect, 155, b. 
Assertive in form, 156, c. Con- 
taining an affirmative quotation, 
156, /. Introducing quotations, 
156, g. 

Question and answer in the same 
paragraph, 194, a. 

Quotations, clauses preceding, 108; 
138; 191, e. 

Quotations, read as interrogatory, 
which were originally affirmative, 
156, /. Indirect, 229, b; 267, a. 
Quotations within, 230, 231. The 
initial in the first word of, 267, XI. 

Quotation, the marks of, rules and 
observations on, with exercises, 
228-234. 



R. 

Reader of proof-sheets, matters to be 
attended to by the, 11, 12; SOS- 
SIS. 
Reading-boy, directions to the, in 

reading copy aloud, 309, 310. 
Reference-marks, 240. - 
References to books, chapters, and 
verses in the Bible, 100, j ; 151, o, c ; 
274. To other works, 268, XII., a ; 
273. 

Relative clause, definition of a, 21, V. 
Explaining the antecedent, 57, § I., 
and a, b. Restricting the ante- 
cedent, 57, § n., and a; 58, c. 
Whose antecedent consists of par- 
ticulars, 58, d. 

Relative pronoun followed by an ex- 
pression enclosed by commas, 58, e. 
Separated by several words from 
its grammatical antecedent, 58, /; 
59, jr. " Of which," " of whom," 
59, h. Adverb put for a preposi- 
tion and relative, 59, i. Relative 
and verb understood, 59, j\ 60, 
Z, m. Present participle used for 
a relative and verb, 60, k. The 
relative only understood, 60, n. 
" Such as," denoting that which, 
60,o. 

Remarks, short, 108, 109. 

Remarks formally introduced, 138. 

Repetition of nominative in a differ- 
ent form, 53, g 8, h. Of words or 
phrases, 34, i,j; 182,183. 

Representative letters, and abbrevia- 
tions, 272-300. 

" Revelation," initial of the word, 
264, d. 

Rhetorical punctuation contrasted 
with grammatical, 15-17. 

Rules and reports of societies, initial 
letters of the principal words in, 
261, a. 

Running titles, or headlines, expla^ 
nation of, 270, HI. 



332 



INDEX. 



S. 

" Scriptures " and " Sacred Writ- 
ings," initials of, 264, c. 

" Section," the dash put after the 
number of, in a headline, 194, d. 

Section-mark, 240. 

Semicolon, rules and remarks on the, 
with exercises, 113-128. 

Sentences defined, 20, I. and II.; 
21, III. Consisting each of two 
clauses joined by " for," " but," 
or "and," 113. Short, slightly 
connected in sense or in construc- 
tion, 125, 126. Complete and in- 
dependent, 142. Interrogative and 
exclamatory, 154-161. Used as 
parentheses, 169, f—h. Broken 
and epigrammatic, 175. 

Series, the term, defined, 23, XI. 

Series of words of the same part of 
speech, 37, 38. Of phrases and 
clauses, 98, 99. Of expressions 
having a common dependence, 
120,121; 178. 

Short quotations or remarks, 108, 
109; 228,229; 267, XL, a, b. 

Short sentences, slightly connected, 
125, 126. 

Sideheads and subheads, 194, 270. 

Signatures to documents, how punc- 
tuated, 147, 148. 

Signatures, letters of the alphabet or 
Arabic figures for the accommo- 
dation of the bookbinder, 271. 

Significant pauses, 175 ; 191, a. 

Signs, medical, arithmetical, alge- 
braic, and geometrical, 301. As- 
tronomical, 302. 

Simple word, what it is, 23, XII. 

Simpler parts into which expressions 
are sometimes divisible, 116, 117. 

Sizes of books, names of various, 271. 

" So — as," " so — that," the correla- 
tives, 93, a; 94, c,/, g. 

Societies, principal words in the rules 
and reports of, 261, a. 



" Son of man," when used of Christ, 
how to be written and printed, 
260, h. 

Songs, ballads, and hymns, often 
pointed with semicolons and co- 
lons, 125, b. 

Specification of subjects, or names 
of things, 128 ; 138, d, e. 

Specimen of proof-sheet, 320, 321. 

" Spirit," " Holy Spirit," and " Spi- 
rit of God," usually begun with 
capital letters, 260, i. 

Star, or asterisk, 240. 

Stars, the three, or N.B., 237, V. 

Subject and predicate, 50-54. With 
separable or inseparable adjuncts, 
50, 51. Exceptions to the rule on 
the, 52, 53. Subject repeated, 53, 
g 8, h. The copula, or a verb in 
the infinitive mood, 54, j. Abrupt 
change of subject, 175. 

" Such as," denoting that which, 
60, o. 

" Such— as " and " such— that," the 
correlatives, 93, a ; 94, /. 

" Sunday " and " sabbath," the ini- 
tials of, 263, e. 

Superior figures and letters, used as 
references, 240. 

Suspension of sense, 175, 191. 

Syllabication, rules and remarks on, 
224-226. Exercises on, 226, 227. 



Table of abbreviations, 277-300. Of 

signs and characters, 301, 302. 
Technical expressions to be correctly 

spelled and clearly written in copy, 

304. 
"Terms" and "expressions," how 

used in the present work, 22, VII. 
Terms relating to books, their sizes, 

&c, 270, 271. 
Terminations " ed," " ed," " 'd," 

and " t," the participial, occurring 

in poetry, 199, g; 200,201. 



INDEX. 



333 



' Th'," and " t'," the elision of the 
e and o in, unnecessary, 199,/. 

" That," denoting purpose or de- 
sign, 90, /. Introducing a quota- 
tion or a remark, 108, 109, a — e; 
267, a. 

" That is," "to wit," &c, 72, a; 
128; 138, d; 191. 

" The more— the better," 93, a. 

"Then," "now." "too," "there- 
fore," 73, ft, i. 

" There " and " here," 73,/. 

" Though," between two words con- 
trasted or mutually related, 45, c. 
Preceding the first of two con- 
trasted words or phrases, 46, /. 

" Though— yet," the correlatives, 
93, a. 

" Though " and " through," impro- 
perly contracted tho\ thro\ 198, c. 

Three stars, how used, 237. 

" Till," not preceded by an apos- 
trophe, 199, e. 

Titles of eminent men, abbreviated, 
148, a; 274. 

Titles of honor and respect, initial 
letters in, 261, 262. 

Titles of books, names of ships, &c, 
to be quoted, 229, e. 

Titles of books, initials of the leading 
words in, 264, b. 

Titlepages, authors' names in, how 
pointed, 147. Words in, displayed 
entirely with capitals and small 
capitals, 268, XIII. 

" To," signifying in order to, 79, h. 

" To-day " and " to-morrow," com- 
monly used without points, 74, I. 

" To proceed," " to conclude," " to 
sum up all," introducing a para- 
graph, 70, i; 131, e. 

"To wit," 128; 138, d. 

Transposed or inverted expressions, 
83-85. 

Two words, of the same part of 
speech, connected by the conjunc- 



tions " and," " or," " nor," 28-30 
Not connected by a conjunction, 
33-35. 

Two brief phrases, united by " and," 
" or," " nor," 98, b ; 99, c. 

Two clauses, one depending on the 
other, 89, 90. Joined by " and," 
" or," " nor," " but;" a verb be- 
ing understood, 104, c. United by 
" for," " but," or " and," 113, 
114. Related, but not joined by 
a conjunction, 130, 131. 

Two conjoined members of sen- 
tences, 134, 135. 

Typographical marks explained, 316 
-318. Exemplified, 320. Correct- 
ed, 321. 

U and V. 

Uses of capital letters, 257-269. Of 
Italics, 269, 270. 

Verb and its nominative, 50-54. 
Understood, 104, 105. 

" "Viz." or " namely," preceding an 
example or a specification of pai*- 
ticulars, 128 ; 138, d . Understood, 
191. 

Vocative words and expressions, usu- 
ally pointed with commas, 68, IX. 
When denoting strong emotion, 
with notes of exclamation, 68, a; 
160, c. The personal pronoun in 
vocative expressions, 42, j. 

W. 

"What," "when," " where," indi- 
cating indirect questions or re- 
marks, 109, g. 

" What," used in an exclamatory 
sense, 160, b. 

"When," "where," "wherever," 
&c, in the latter of two clauses, 
89, c, d. 

" Whether — or," the correlatives, 
94, h. 

" Without doubt," 72, a. 



334 



INDEX. 



" Word," the initial of, when de- 
noting either the Logos or the 
Bible, 264, c. 

Words in a series, 37, 38. In appo- 
sition, 41-43. In contrast, or 
having a mutual relation to others, 
45-47. Correlative, 93, 94. Omit- 
ted, 79, 80, j, h ; 104, 105 ; 191 ; 195. 
Numeral, when they are to be pre- 
ferred to Arabic figures, 112, c; 
149, e. Specification of words, 128. 
Words thrown obliquely into the 
body of a sentence, 168-170. Re- 
peated rhetorically, 182, 183. Com- 
pound, 209-218. Derivative, 219, 



220. Borrowed from a speaker or 
an author, 228-231. Words of pri- 
mary importance, initial letters in, 
264, 265. 

Y and Z. 

" Yes," " no," when equivalent to 
sentences, how pointed, 130, d. 

" Yesterday," not separated by a 
comma, 74, I. 

" Yet," between two words con- 
trasted or mutually related, 45, c. 
Between two contrasted words,- the 
first preceded by though, 46, /. 

Zodiac, signs of the, 302 



THE END. 



22d Edition, Pages xn and 334, 16mo. 

fwatk on ditglisj} jjrautaaiiira; 

DESIGNED FOB 

LETTER- WRITERS, AUTHORS, PRINTERS, AND CORRECTORS OF THE 

PRESS; AND FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS 

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■WITH AN APPENDIX, 

CORTAINIXO 

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Copy and on Proof-reading, Specimen of Proof- Sheet, $c. 



BY JOHN WILSON. 



NOTICES OF PRECEDING EDITIONS. 

This is undoubtedly the most complete work yet published on the subject, 
both as regards the amount of instruction convey ed. and the lucid arrange- 
ment adopted ; and we cannot commend it too highly for general use, the 
more especially as the typographical execution of the work is so superior. — 
JVurtun's Literary Oazctte for March 15, 1855. 

Rarely have we seen a book so attractive to the eye. Its rules of punctua- 
tion are, in the main, accurate and perspicuous, — far superior to any other 
system of directions which we have read on this theme. The volume contains 
much information on the minutuB of literature, with which every scholar 
ought to be familiar, but of which many eminent authors are lamentably 
ignorant. We know not where so many particulars relating to the finish of 
copy for the press can be learned. A study of this volume would save youth- 
ful scholars from many careless and uncouth habits of writing. The spirit 
and genius of the English language are intimately connected with some of the 
questions involved in an accurate punctuation. He who can punctuate accu- 
rately can write perspicuously. — Bibliotheca Sacra, April, 1855. 

A treatise that proposes to familiarize the principles of Punctuation, easily 
Accessible in price and readily intelligible in its composition, cannot be other 
than welcome to all who write or print ; and Mr. Wilson's is certainly the 
most comprehensive and the most instructive that has come under our 
observation. ... It is prepared with great care and good judgment, and no 
printing-office ought to be without it ; as, from its simple arrangement, the 
•ompositor and reader will be enabled in an instant to solve any doubt that 
may arise in the course of their labors. In schools and families, it cannot 
fail to be useful, equally to teacher and pupil; and even the accomplished 
author may read it with advantage. Mr. Wilson has done good service to 
literature by this little volume ; and we thank him for it. — London Critic 



2, NOTICES OF 

Tt is an excellent work for schools and academies, and for those who would 
become self-taught. — Christian Freeman. 

We have never before met with any work on Punctuation which gave us 
so great satisfaction as this. — The Student. 

The best book [on Punctuation] to be recommended is this by Mr. Wilson : 
there is no other so elaborate and trustworthy. — Ladies' Repository. 

This is a valuable manual. . . . The work of Mr. Wilson is well calculated 
to supply the want, which has long been felt to exist, of a suitable text-boofe 
upon Punctuation. — Boston Daily Journal. 

We advise any one, who wishes to understand thoroughly the whole art 
and mystery of Punctuation and Proof-reading, to get this volume. — Chris- 
tian Register. 

A more elegantly printed book than this little volume it would be difficult 
to find. Mr. Wilson has evidently bestowed upon it the best workmanship 
of his hand, as well as of his mind. — Boston Post. 

1 This treatise of Mr. Wilson, a thorough practical printer, is the best we 
have ever seen, and in fact the only one we have ever seen worth having. — 
Chronotype. 

We invite attention to this truly admirable work. It is one which no 
printer can afford to want, wbile to ordinary English scholars its importance 
is incalculable. — Belfast (Ire.) News-Letter. 

A work which should be in the possession of every student who aspires 
even to write a letter. ... It is a perfect guide in all matters covered by the 
title. — Water-cure Journal. 

This is a useful and valuable work on English Punctuation, and every one 
can read it with profit and pleasure. . . . The subject is treated in an agreeable, 
instructive, and entertaining manner. — Boston Daily Atlas. 

A very useful and carefully executed treatise on a subject justly claiming 
attention, and commonly too much neglected. . . . The classes are so large 
who feel their want of this kind of instruction, that we must anticipate for 
our author the success which its merits deserve. — London Inquirer. 

This work seems to us worthy of being in the hands of every letter-writer, 
author, printer, editor, and teacher. . . . The work of Mr. Wilson shows much 
familiarity with the principles of language, and the examples with which he 
illustrates his text are well chosen. — Springfield Daily Republican. 

This is a very neatly printed volume, on a subject much neglected, and 
very imperfectly understood, even by accomplished scholars. . . . This treatise 
appears to have been prepared with great care and accuracy, and deserves a 
circulation as wide as the country. — Liberator. 

From a careful examination of the work, we hesitate not to pronounce it 
one of the most valuable treatises in the English language. We trust it will 
be adopted as a text-book in all the institutions in the country. — Prisoners' 
Friend. 



TREATISE ON PUNCTUATION 3 

If every author and letter-writer could be put in possession of this perfect 
little work, printers and correctors of the press would canonize Mr. Wilson 
forthwith; for it would create a new era in their profession. — Monthly Reli- 
gions Magazine. 

The whole system is so simply and thoroughly explained in this book of 
Mr. Wilson's, that any one may clearly comprehend the whole system of 
Punctuation by a careful perusal and study of this book. We warmly recom- 
mend it to all persons. — Newport Daily Mews. 

This very excellent work should be in the hands of every aspirant to a 
true and correct method of English Punctuation. . . . The Appendix and 
Hints on Proof-reading, with an exemplification of typographical marks, are 
alone worth the price of the book. — New-York Day-book. 

My dear Sir, — I have carefully read your volume on English Punctuation, 
and consider it a most excellent treatise. It places the whole subject upon 
which you write on a surer basis than any work I have ever before seen. — 
Extract of a Letter from the Rev. R. C. Waterston. 

Dear Sir, — Many thanks for your excellent "Treatise on English Punc- 
tuation." We have long needed a work which could show the philosophy 
and common sense of this department of letters. Your book meets the want 
fully. It is a most scholar-like production, and I hope every writer will be 
familiar with it. — Extract of a Letter from the Rev. Charles Brooks. 

We remember purchasing an English edition of this work some yeara 
since, and prizing it so highly that we tried several times, without success, 
to replace it, after it had disappeared from our collection. . . . Not only to 
professional authors, teachers, and letter-writers, but to the intelligent pub 
lie at large, this work especially commends itself. — Boston Transcript. 

. . . Such was the experience, also, of a graduate from our excellent Uni- 
versity, who said that he had acquired more useful hints on Punctuation from 
a few moments given to the perusal of this book in the intervals of leisure, 
than he had from all the attention, voluntary or acquired, of an entire course 
of collegiate study. — Evening Traveller. 

It contains all the necessary directions for self-taught writers and editors, 
a very large class in this country, and is a book of a kind absolutely necessary 
to be read by every type-setter and proof-reader who intends to be master of 
his art. . . • Every person, who intends publishing his own productions or 
those of others, should have Mr. Wilson's book upon his writing-desk. — 
American Whig Review. 

It is the best book on the subject with which we are acquainted. The 
rules are deduced from the best usage, and commend themselves to the 
judgment of practical men, and men of taste. The directions for Proof- 
reading and Correcting, appended to the main work, are concise and clear. 
. . . We would recommend to every person, who in public or private writes 
the English langtiage, to procure a copy of this treatise. — Qnincy Patriot. 



4 NOTICES. 

Dear Sir, — We have used your " Treatise on Punctuation " in my school 
for more than two years, as the text-book on that subject. I feel it due to 
you to say, that it has given me great satisfaction. In its arrangement, its 
fulness, in the great number of exercises, and the demand which they make 
on the learner for study, and in its completeness, your work seems to me to 
be all that could be desired in such a treatise. — From N. Tillinghast, Esq., 
Principal of the Normal School at Bridgewater, Jan. 18, 1851. 

Our educational library has lately been enriched by a copy of Wilson's 
" Treatise on English Punctuation." We have read it through with great 
pleasure, and find little or nothing in it opposed to our own notions, but 
much that will be useful to us and to every teacher and author. . . . The 
definitions are generally clear and simple, and the exercises such as are appro- 
priate and sufficient : any one of ordinary intelligence can understand them. 
Besides valuable instruction in regard to Punctuation, there is much 
other matter, which none but a practised proof-reader could give. — Common- 
school Journal. 

Mr. Wilson has just issued another volume, to be very earnestly recom- 
mended to all. . . . The Appendix, among other useful matter, contains capital 
and much-needed remarks and directions on Proof-reading. We have heard 
good judges speak of this manual as an " authority ; " and such is our own 
opinion. Were it thoroughly studied and followed, what improvements 
would follow in all manner of manuscripts ! what songs of joy would resound 
throughout the printing establishments of the land! and what blessed 
changes for the better would be witnessed in periodicals and newspapers! 
It is an excellent book for schools, and no family should be without it for 
purposes of reference. — New-York Christian Inquirer. 

In itself a most beautiful specimen of the noble art of printing, this book 
is designed to secure accuracy, elegance, and lucidness in works that issue 
from the press. ... All necessary information upon this important subject 
will be found, presented in a very simple and forcible way, in Mr. Wilson's 
" Treatise on Punctuation." It is an exceedingly valuable book ; and a copy 
of it should be at the service of every one who is directly or indirectly inte- 
rested in the large subject of which it treats, — all who have to write important 
letters, records, and documents, as well as those who write for the press. . . . 
Its title is a very full exposition of its contents ; and a reader of it will be 
equally surprised and instructed by the amount of knowledge which its peru- 
sal will impart. We heartily commend it to the masters and pupils of all our 
high schools and academies. — Christian Examiner. 



WOOLWORTH, AINSWORTH, & COMPANY, 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 



